FORESTRY  IN 
MINNESOTA 

SAMUEL    B.    GREEN 


EXCHANGE 


FORESTRY  IN  MINNESOTA 


BY 

SAMUEL   B.  GREEN, 
•  i 

PROFESSOR  OF  HORTICULTURE  AND   FORESTRY, 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF   MINNESOTA. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE 

GEOLOGICAL  AND   NATURAL  HISTORY 
SURVEY  OF  MINNESOTA. 


ST.  PAUL,  MINN.: 

PIONEER    PRKSS   COMPANY. 

1902. 


r 


.4 


Copyright,  1902,  by  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


PREFACE   TO    FIRST    EDITION. 


This  book  has  been  prepared  especially  for  the  classes  in 
forestry  in  the  School  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota. It  is  really  a  compilation  of  the  lectures  and  mimeo- 
graphed notes  that  I  have  found  useful  in  my  experience  in 
teaching  the  elementary  principles  of  forestry.  The  word  for- 
estry is  here  used  in  the  broad  sense  in  which  it  is  often  used  in 
this  section  and  includes  much  that,  strictly  speaking,  would 
come  under  several  allied  heads.  In  the  use  of  botanical  names 
I  have  followed,  so  far  as  possible,  those  given  by  Dr.  George 
B.  Sudworth  in  his  "Nomenclature  of  the  Arborescent  Flora 
of  the  United  States,"  which  has  been  adopted  as  the  standard 
for"  the  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  Oth- 
erwise the  Index  Kewensis  has  been  followed.  But  where 
these  names  are  different  from  those  commonly  used  by  horti- 
culturists in  current  literature  the  more  familiar  term  is  also 
generally  given  in  brackets. 

I  have  received  many  kind  suggestions  and  criticisms  from 
Dr.  Otto  Lugger,  St.  Anthony  Park;  Hon.  L.  R.  Moyer,  Mon- 
tevideo; and  Messrs.  John  S.  Harris,  La  Crescent;  Clarence 
Wedge,  Albert  Lea;  F.  H.  Nutter,  Minneapolis,  and  J.  M. 
Underwood,  Lake  City.  Professor  Conway  McMillan  has  fur- 
nished many  specimens  for  drawings.  My  assistant,  Mr. 
W.  A.  Wheeler,  has  given  much  careful  attention  to  the  revi- 
sion of  the  manuscript  and  has  corrected  many  errors  that  would 
otherwise  have  crept  in.  I  am  especially  indebted  to  all  these 
parties  who  have  aided  me  in  this  work,  and  I  wish  to  extend 
my  sincere  thanks  for  their  interest  and  kindness. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  I  have  freely  consulted  the 
"Silva  of  North  America"  (Prof.  C.  S.  Sargent);  "Illustrated 


302597 


4  PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 

Flora  of  the  United  States"  (Britton  &  Brown);  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Division  of  Forestry  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture; "Baume  und  Straucher  des  Waldes"  (Hempel  &  Wil- 
helm) ;  and  Flora  von  Dentschland,  Oesterreich  u.  d.  Schweiz 
(Prof.  Dr.  Thome). 

S.  B.  G. 

University  of  Minnesota, 

St.    Anthony-   Park, 

July  29,    1898. 


PREFACE   TO   SECOND   EDITION. 


The  first  edition  of  10,000  copies  of  "Forestry  in  Minne- 
sota" was  published  by  the  Minnesota  Forestry  Association 
and  has  been  received  with  much  favor.  It  is  now  probably 
used  in  more  than  fourteen  of  the  agricultural  colleges  as  their 
chief  text  book  on  this  important  subject  and  it  is  also  used  in 
a  number  of  normal  and  high  schools  in  this  and  other  states, 
either  as  a  text  book  or  as  supplementary  reading.  The  first 
edition  is  practically  exhausted,  but  the  demand  for  it  continues 
to  increase,  and  it  is  this  demand,  and  the  fact  that  it  concerns 
a  subject  closely  related  to  the  development  of  this  state,  which 
has  induced  the  Board  of  Regents  to  publish  it  as  a  portion 
of  the  report  of  the  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey  of 
Minnesota. 

This  edition  covers  all  the  ground  reached  by  the  first  edi- 
tion, but  it  has  been  improved  by  the  better  classification  and 
extension  of  the  matter  in  Part  I,  and  some  additions  and  cor- 
rections to  Part  II.  I  think  it  greatly  improved  for  the  pur- 
poses of  a  text  book,  for  which  it  is  primarily  intended. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  the  world  of  science 
and  especially  the  state  of  Minnesota  have  lost  two  helpful  men 
in  the  death  of  Dr.  Otto  Lugger  and  J.  S.  Harris,  each  of  whom 
assisted  in  preparing  the  first  edition  of  "Forestry  in  Minnesota." 
To  me  this  is  a  personal  bereavement,  and  I  extend  to  their 
wives  and  children  my  most  heartfelt  sympathy  and  best  wishes. 

In  this  revision  I  have  had  the  loyal  and  painstaking  help 
of  my  assistant,  Mr.  T.  L.  Duncan,  and  the  chapter  on  Forest 
Mensuration  has  been  almost  entirely  prepared  by  him. 

The  drawings,  with  few  exceptions,  have  been  made  under 
my  direction  by  Miss  M.  M.  Cheney.  The  half  tone  illustra- 
tions are  mostly  from  photographs  taken  in  the  division  of 
Horticulture  and  Forestry.  Figure  32  is  from  a  photograph 


6  PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

loaned  by  Professor  John  Gifford,  Figure  9  is  from  H.  B.  Ayres, 
Figure  32  from  W.  H.  Rau.  By  permission  of  Houghton,  Mif- 
flin  &  Co.  the  typical  botanical  figures  of  plates  14,  15,  21,  22, 
23,  24,  26,  31,  35,  43,  45,  49,  55  and  63  have  been  redrawn  from 
the  "Silva  of  North  America."  The  typical,  botanical  figures  of 
plates  i,  6,  7,  10,  20  and  25  are  redrawn  from  "Baume  und 
Straucher  des  Waldes."  Plate  52  is  redrawn  from  Flora  von 
Deutschland,  Oesterreich  u.  d.  Schweiz. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 
January  30,  1902. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Chapter  I.  The  Tree. 

Chapter  II.  The  Forest. 

Chapter  III.  Forest  Influences. 

Chapter  IV.  Tree  Planting  on   Prairies. 

Chapter  V.  Forest  Regeneration  and  Treatment. 

Chapter  VI.  Propagation. 

Chapter  VII.  Nursery  Practice. 

Chapter  VIII.  Forest  Protection. 

Chapter  IX.  Rate  of  Increase. 

Chapter  X.  Forest  Mensuration. 

Chapter  XI.  Forest  Problems  in  Minnesota. 

Chapter  XII.  Wood  and  its  Uses. 

Chapter  XIII.  Durability  of  Wood. 

Chapter  XIV.  Forest  Economics. 

PART  IL 

TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Pinacecz.     Pine  Family. 

Pines,    Larches,    Spruces,    Hemlock,    Douglas    Spruce,    Firs, 
Arborvitse  and  Junipers. 

Juglandacea.     Walnut  Family. 
Walnut,  Butternut  and  Hickories. 

Salicacece.     Willow  Family. 
Willows  and  Poplars. 

Betulacca.     Birch  Family. 
Birches,  Alders,  Hornbeam  and  Blue  Beech. 

Fagacea.     Oak  Family. 
Chestnut  and  Oaks, 


8  CONTENTS. 

Ulmacece.     Elm  Family. 
Elms  and  Hackberry. 

Moracecp.     Mulberry  Family. 
Mulberries. 

Rosacea.     Rose  Family. 

Wild    Crab.    Mountain   Ashes,    Serviceberries,    Thorns,    Wild 
Plum  and  Wild  Cherries. 

Leguminosce.     Pea  Family. 
Honey  Locust,  Coffeetree  and  Locust. 

Aceracea.     Maple  Family. 
Maples  and  Boxelder. 

Hippocastanaccce.     Buckeye  Family. 
Horse  Chestnut  and  Ohio  Buckeye. 

Rhamnacece.     Buckthorn  Family. 
Buckthorn. 

Tiliacece.     Linden  Family. 
Basswoods. 

Elaeagnacea.     Oleaster  Family. 
Russian  Olive. 

Olcacca.     Olive  Family. 
Ashes. 

Bignoniacea.     Bignonia  Family. 
Catalpa. 

Caprifoliacea.     Honeysuckle  Family. 
Sheepberry. 

PART  III. 

FOREST   TREES  OF   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

GLOSSARY.  . 
INDEX. 


PART  I. 

ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY 


CHAPTER  L 


THE  TREE. 


A  tree  is  a  woody  plant  with  a  single  stem  more  or  less 
branched  and  taking  on  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  tree 
form. 

The  most  evident  parts  of  a  tree  are  roots,  stem  or  trunk, 
branches,  buds,  leaves,  flowers,  fruit  and  seed. 

The  Stem,  Branches  and  Roots  are  made  up  of  inner 
bark,  outer  bark,  sapwood  and  heartwood.  The  outer  bark,  sap- 
wood  and  heartwood  are 
made  up  of  concentric  circles 
termed  annual  rings.  During 
each  period  of  growth  two 
new  rings  are  formed — one 
on  the  outside  of  the  sapwood 
and  another  on  the  inside  of 
the  outer  bark  and  as  we  sel- 
dom have  more  than  one  sea- 
son of  growth  each  year  but 
one'  ring  is  formed  on  the 
wood  in  a  year;  so  that  by 
counting  the  rings  of  wood 
in  the  stem  we  can  determine 
very  closely  the  age  of  trees. 
In  very  rare  cases  we  have 
two  periods  of  growth  in  one 
year,  as  in  1894,  when  the 
drouth  of  midsummer  ripened  up  the  wood  of  the  trees  by  the 
first  of  August  and  the  rains  of  autumn  started  a  new  growth,  and 
caused  some  trees  and  shrubs  to  flower  in  October,  but  such 
occurrences  are  very  uncommon  and  the  extra  rings  formed 


Figure  i.     Cross-section   of  Woody 

bark,  (b)  inner  bark  or  bast,  tc)  cam- 
bium, (d,e,f,g  and  h)  annual  rings 
of  wood,  and  (i)  pith. 


.••^,  ",  .'  '•' :BLEMENtARY  FORESTRY. 

are  readily  detected  by  their  being  smaller  than  adjoining  rings 
and  less  distinctly  defined.  The  age  of  trees  could  be  told  by 
the  rings  of  the  outer  bark  nearly  as  well  as  by  those  of  the 
wood  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  outer  layers  of  bark  fall 
off  as  the  tree  grows  older. 

In  some  experiments  the  bark  of  rapidly  growing  branches 
was  peeled  back  in  the  spring  for  a  few  inches,  the  wood  cov- 
ered with  tin-foil  and  the  bark  replaced.  At  the  end  of  the  sea- 
son there  was  found  a  ring  of  wood  outside  of  the  tin-foil,  thus 
showing  where  the  annual  growth  of  the  tree  was  made. 

The  Bark  covers  the  whole  exterior  surface  of  the  trunk, 
branches  and  roots  and  serves  as  a  protection.  It  is  made  up 
>f  two  parts,  the  outer  or  corky  layer  which  is  dead  bark  and 
the  inner  or  live  bark.  These  vary  much  in  appearance  and 
thickness  on  different  kinds  of  trees.  For  instance,  on  the 
White  Birch  the  corky  layer  is  pure  white,  very  thin  and  tough, 
while  on  our  White  Pine  it  is  very  dark  brown  and  often  an  inch 
or  more  in  thickness  and  quite  brittle. 

The  Sapwood  is  the  portion  of  the  wood  next  to  the  bark. 
It  varies  much  in  thickness  in  different  species  and  in  trees  of 
the  same  species;  the  most  rapidly  grown  trees  contain  the 
largest  amount.  It  is  the  most  active  portion  of  the  wood  in 
the  growing  tree,  atfd  contains  considerable  plant  food  and 
more  water  than  the  heartwood. 

The  Heartwood  is  the  wood  in  the  center  of  the  trunk  and 
is  generally  distinguished  from  the  sapwood  by  its  more  com- 
pact structure  and  darker  color,  though  in  some  cases  it  may 
be  lighter  colored  than  the  sapwood.  It  is  also  harder  and 
more  valuable  for  fuel,  shrinks  less  in  drying,  and  is  more  dura- 
ble in  contact  with  the  soil  than  the  sapwood.  There  is  very 
little  movement  of  the  sap  in  the  heartwood. 

The  Roots  furnish  water  and  nourishment  that  the  plant 
receives  from  the  soil,  but  only  the  young  roots  have  the  power 
of  taking  up  the  soil  water;  the  older  roots  are  most  useful  in 
holding  the  tree  in  place.  It  is  common  to  classify  roots  into 
surface  roots  and  tap  roots,  depending  on  their  shape  and  the 
depth  they  go  in  the  ground.  Some  trees  have  nearly  all  surface 
roots,  as  the  Birch  and  Spruce,  others  have  nearly  all  tap  roots, 
which  often  go  to  a  great  depth  on  dry  land,  as  those  of  the  Bur 


THE  TREE.  is 

Oak,  White  Oak,  Black  Walnut  and  Butternut.  Most  of  our 
trees  have  a  combination  of  the  two  kinds,  as  the  Maple,  Hack- 
berry  and  Ash.  Seedling  trees  of  most  kinds  have  a  decided  tap 
root  when  young,  but  in  many  species  it  ceases  to  grow  down- 
ward when  a  few  years  old.  This  is  true  of  the  Red  and  Scarlet 
Oaks,  which  often  have  a  tap  root  extending  four  feet  in  depth 


Figure  2.  Characteristic  Root  Formation.  On  the  left  two  Hackberry,  on 
the  right  two  White  Birch,  each  2-year  seedlings  from  same  seed  bed.  The 
first  with  a  divided  tap  root,  the  second  without  tap  root. 

before  the  tree  has  attained  a  corresponding  height  above 
ground,  but  after  about  five  years  large  lateral  roots  develop  and 
the  growth  of  the  tap  root  nearly  ceases. 

Root  growth  is  relatively  less  to  the  extent  of  ground  occu- 
pied in  moist  and  fertile  soil  than  in  dry  and  poor  soil,  but  the 
roots  are  proportionately  more  branched.  In  wet  seasons  the 
root  development  is  less  for  a  given  plant  than  in  dry  seasons, 
because  the  roots  may  get  their  needed  food  and  water  from  a 
small  area.  Nursery  trees  grown  on  moist  rich  land  have  a 
more  compact  root  system  than  those  grown  on  poor  land. 

At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  a  small  Bur  Oak 
growing  on  dry,  gravelly  soil  had  a  tap  root  that  was  evidently 
20  feet  long,  while  on  moist  fertile  clay  land  in  the  same  section 
such  trees  probably  seldom  have  tap  roots  more  than  six  feet 
long. 

Buds  are  placed  regularly  on  the  young  branches  and  are 


14  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

said  to  be  either  alternate  or  opposite.  When  they  occur  on  the 
stump  or  on  roots  they  are  not  arranged  in  any  regular  order. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  buds — flower  buds,  which  develop  into 
flowers  and  fruit;  and  leaf  buds,  which  develop  into  leaves  and 
branches.  These  can  generally  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  their  shape  and  size  and  by  cutting  through  them  and 
noting  their  construction.  Flower  buds  are  generally  more  lia- 
ble to  injury  from  climatic  changes  than  leaf  buds. 

The  I/eaves  of  our  trees  vary  much  in  size  and  shape.  They 
are  simple  when  composed  of  but  one  piece,  as  ihe  leaves  of 
the  Oak,  Maple  and  Birch,  and  compound  when  composed  of 
more  than  one  piece,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Locust,  Ash  and  Black 
Walnut.  Leaves  are  made  up  of  a  framework  filled  in  with 
cellular  tissue  and  covered  with  a  thin  skin.  This  skin  has  very 
many  small  pores  in  it  called  stomata,  through  which  the  plant 
takes  in  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  gives  off  oxygen  and 
water. 

All  our  trees  shed  at  least  a  part  of  their  leaves  each  year. 
All  the  broad-leaved  trees  and  the  Tamarack  shed  their  entire 
foliage  yearly,  while  our  so-called  evergreen  trees  lose  a  part 
of  their  leaves  each  year.  The  length  of  time  leaves  remain  on 
this  latter  class  of  trees  varies  from  two  or  three  years,  in  the 
case  of  White  Pine  growing  in  very  severe  locations  in  this 
section,  to  perhaps  eight  years,  in  the  case  of  Red  Cedar  favora- 
bly located.  The  time  that  leaves  remain  on  the  branches  of 
evergreens  depends  to  some  extent  on  the  location  and  age  of 
the  individual  tree. 

The  following  table  gives  the  approximate  length  of  time 
that  leaves  of  conifers  remain  on  trees  in  Minnesota: 


THE  TREE. 


15 


LENGTH  OF  TIME  THAT  LEAVES  OF  CONIFERS  REMAIN  ON 
TREES  IN  MINNESOTA. 


Botanical  Name. 

Common  Name. 

Year  of  Falling. 

White  Pine  

Pinus  flexilis  

Western  White  Pine. 
Norway  Pine 

5th  and  6th. 

Jack  Pine  

Finns  ponderosa  scopulorum  

Bull  Pine  
Scotch  Pine  

3d  and  4th. 
^d 

Dwarf  Pine 

5th  6th  and  7th 

Larix  laricina  
Larix  europea    

Tamarack  
European  IYarch  

ist  winter. 
ist  winter. 

White  Spruce  .... 

4th  and  5th 

Black  Spruce  

4th  and  5th. 

Blue  Spruce 

6th  and  7th 

Picea  engelmanni  
Picea  excelsa  

Engelmann  Spruce  .  . 
Norway  Spruce  

5th  and  6th. 
5th. 

Tsuga  canadensis  

Hemlock   

2d  and  3d. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  

Douglas  Spruce  

5th. 

Balsam  Fir             .... 

5th 

White  Fir  

5th. 

Th  uja  occ  ide  ntalis 

Arborvitse   

4th  and  5th. 

Red  Cedar  

5th  and  6th. 

Juniperus  communis    

Dwarf  Juniper  

5th  and  6th. 

Flowers  are  parts  of  the  plant  especially  modified  for  the 
reproduction  of  the  plant  by  seed.  Both  sexual  organs  may 
be  located  together  in  the  same  flower,  as  those  of  the  Bass- 
wood,  Mountain  Ash  and  Cherry;  or  in  separate  flowers  on 
the  same  plant,  as  those  of  the  Birch,  Oak  and  Black  Walnut; 
or  they  may  be  separate  on  entirely  different  plants,  as  in  the 
Willow,  Poplar,  Boxelder  and  Ash. 


1  p 

ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY 

The  Fruit,  botanically  defined    ,'«  ft, 
derived  from  a  single  flower     As  u!d 


~ 

really  the  fruit.  '   ^   Walnut  an^   Basswoo, 

Distribution  of 
in  various  ways.  the 


. 

oi  floats  or  wings  which  hnnv  tj,  (  '  by  me 

-d   (2)  by  annals      The  seeds  oHh  "A  '"  ""  ™  °r  Wa 
Catalpa,  Elm,  Maple    Pine  and  q  ,'  Arborvit<^   Boxelc 

'hem  to  be  blown  gr'eat  d  sLn  Sp™Ce,have  win^  which  all 
they  break  loose  frtm  he  "  K  y  ^  Wi"d'  eSpecia"y  wt 
severe  winds.  The"  Tt^L^^  ^  treeS  duri 
from  the  pod  until  after  ,Vh  %?,°ney  L°Cust  are  "ot  sh 
inches  or  more  long  and  s'  ir^l?  al  en>  «"<«  •»  *e  pod  is  t 
distances  on  ,eve,  /roll,  ££%£  "  "»'  b/  "'<-"  Jo, 
lars  and  willows  have  a  cot  £  fl  .  S6eds  of  the  P° 

them  up  in  the  air.  In  L  ±  L  ^  \f  "^•"^  Whieh  buo 
'ike  bract  attached  to  thl  ,«  ^  °ffthe  .^asswood.  *e  parachut 
^  carrying  them  through  e  Tr^f  f"  SPreadin«  the  see, 
seeds  of  Mountain  Ash  W  Id  Bhck  Cher?  H  "7  C™St  T' 
ers  are  largely  distributed  by  wtld  mim  7'  ^°f"  and  °ti 
and  allow  the  seeds  to  passfhroueh  >l  r  W  eat  the  fru 
jured  or  carry  off  the  fruh  nd  I  ?»  al™entary  canal  unir 

or  seed  vessels  have  b«  ,ike  OT  ^u  "*  SeedS'  Ma^  seed 
adhere  to  animals  and  are  thus  caS^  ^^  ^  WhiCh  'he- 
Very  often  bodies  of  water  aid  in  A  H  COKnsiderable  distances 
a"  that  are  spread  byTh  ag  „  y  K^f^  °f  SeedS'  Si"C' 
that  have  fleshy  coverings  wm  fl  u  a"d  most  of  tho« 

and  may  in  thil  way  ^"red       °"          SUrfaCe  °f  ^  ^ 


s  of 

Balsam,  have  a  decided  tendency  to    or^T' 

take  on  a  conical  form  in  preference  to  th     H°n8,  ***  *"*  f° 

crown  or  head;    while  others   1  ke  th«  n  d7eI°Pme"t  of  a 

and  Boeder,  develop  their^rott 


YHE  TR#£.,  17 

The  actual  shape  of  trees  depends  on  the  space  they  have  to 
grow  in,  on  the  soil,  situation,  and  on  the  age  of  the  trees. 
Where  trees  have  plenty  of  room  to  grow,  and  their  natural 
development  is  not  interfered  with,  their  individual  character- 
istics are  most  apparent. 

TREE  GROWTH. 

Assimilation.  Plants  are  made  up  of  various  tissues  and 
these  are  formed  of  numerous  cells.  The  material  of  which  the 
cells  are  composed  is  largely  carbon.  This  carbon  is  derived 
from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  which  enters  into  the  leaves 
and  under  the  action  of  light,  air  and  water  is  there  decom- 
posed; the  oxygen  is  given  off  and  the  carbon  is  retained,  and, 
combined  with  water  obtained  from  the  roots,  forms  starch, 
oiigar,  gum  and  other  plant  foods. 

This  process  of  food  making  is  called  assimilation  and  can 
be  carried  on  only  in  the  green  parts  of  the  plant,  and  in  these 
only  when  exposed  to  light  and  air.  Hence,  foliage,  air  and 
light  at  the  top  are  essential  prerequisites  for  tree  growth,  and, 
other  conditions  being  favorable,  the  greater  quantity  and  bet- 
ter development  of  foliage  and  the  more  light  this  foliage  has 
at  its  disposal  for  its  work,  the  more  vigorously  will  the  tree 
grow. 

Tn  general,  therefore,  the  growth  of  wood  may  be  reduced 
either  by  the  removal  of  foliage,  which  reduces  the  working 
surface,  or  by  shading,  which  somewhat  checks  the  activity  of 
the  foliage  by  hindering  light  action. 

Transpiration.  The  flow  of  sap  in  trees  is  not  well  under- 
stood. In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  sapwood  trans- 
mits th*e  water  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  where  a  part  enters 
into  the  assimilated  sap  and  goes  to  build  up  the  plant,  and  the 
remainder,  which  is  by  far  the  greater  part,  passes  off  as  vapor. 
The  amount  thus  transpired  varies  greatly  with  the  species,  age 
of  the  tree,  amount  of  foliage  at  work,  amount  of  light  at  its 
disposal,  climatic  conditions  and  the  condition  of  tree  growth. 
The  amount  01  water  transpired  is  so  large  in  comparison  to 
the  amount  retained  in  the  tree  that  while  an  acre  of  forest  may 
store  in  its  trees  1,000  pounds  of  carbon,  15  or  20  pounds  of 
mineral  substances  and  5,000  pounds  of  water  in  a  year,  it  may 
2 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

have  taken  from  the  soil  and  given  off  to  the  air  from  500,000  to 
1,500,000  pounds  of  water,  or  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  as 
much  as  agricultural  crops.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
leaves  of  deciduous  trees  transpire  one-sixth  to  one-third  as 
much  water  as  an  equal  surface  of  water.  Large  deciduous 
trees  undoubtedly  give  off  as  much  as  a  barrel  of  water  a  day 
in  dry  summer  weather.  Coniferous  trees  transpire  much  less 
water  than  most  deciduous  trees,  frequently  not  over  one-sixth 
as  much. 

Mineral  Substances  are  taken  up  in  small  quantities  and 
consist  mostly  of  lime,  magnesia  and  potash.  They  are  carried 
to  the  leaves,  where  they  are  used  (peihaps  also  on  their  passage 
through  the  tree),  with  a  part  of  the  water,  in  food  preparation. 
The  main  part  of  the  mineral  substances  taken  up  remains  as 
the  water  transpires  in  the  leaves  and  young  twigs,  and  is 
returned  to  the  soil  when  the  leaves  are  shed,  and  when  the 
tree  is  cut  and  the  brush  left  to  decompose  and  make  humus. 

The  Soil  of  Woodlands  is  Improved  from  year  to  year  if 
the  leaves  and  litter  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  and 
fire  is  kept  out,  since  the  mineral  matters  taken  up  by  the  tree 
are  largely  returned  to  the  soil  in  a  more  soluble  form  and  the 
amount  of  humus  is  increased.  For  this  reason  there  is  little 
need  of  alternating  woodland  crops. 

Almost  any  soil  can  furnish  a  sufficient  quantity  of  mineral 
substances  for  the  production  of  a  crop  of  trees,  provided  it  is 
moist  and  the  leaf  mould  is  not  removed.  Good  soils  will  con- 
tinue to  furnish  mineral  matter  in  sufficient  quantity,  even  if  a 
portion  of  the  leaf  mould  is  carried  away.  If,  however,  this 
removal  is  continued  annually  for  a  long  period,  any  but  exceed- 
ingly fertile  soils  are  likely  to  become  exhausted,  just 'as  land 
on  which  field  crops  are  grown  cannot  produce  crops  forever 
without  manuring. 

The  Yearly  Round  of  I,ife  in  a  Tree.  In  the  spring  the 
tree  starts  into  growth  and  feeds  on  the  plant  food  stored  up 
the  preceding  year;  the  leaves  unfold  and  commence  furnishing 
plant  food.  These  two  sources  of  food  push  the  growth  along 
very  rapidly  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.  By  the  first  of 
July  the  food  stored  up  the  previous  season  is  exhausted  in 
many  trees,  and  growth  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  food  fur- 


TREE  GROWTH.  19 

nished  by  the  leaves.  The  growth  at  this  time  is  generally 
much  slower  than  in  the  spring,  and  as  the  capacity  of  the  tree 
for  building  up  plant  food  increases  it  commences  to  store  up 
starch,  sugar  and  other  foods  in  its  cells  with  which  to  start 
growth  the  following  spring,  and  the  cell  walls  become  thicker 
and  firmer.  This  maturing  of  the  tree  is  termed  the  ripening 
of  the  wood,  and  when  completed  the  tree  is  ready  for  winter. 
Our  hardiest  trees  generally  ripen  their  wood  early  in  the 
autumn  and  then  cease  growing,  although  probably  some  food 
is  being  stored  up  so  long  as  the  leaves  remain  green  on  the 
trees. 

Rest  Period  of  Plants.  With  very  few  exceptions  all  plants 
require  an  occasional  rest  period  for  their  best  development. 
Some  species  get  it  naturally  by  being  dried  and  others  by  being 
frozen.  And  even  when  plants  are  kept  under  growing  condi- 
tions the  year  round  they  have  periods  of  rest  and  of  excite- 
ment. During  the  rest  period  the  plants  undergo  very  few 
changes,  and  yet  there  is  undoubtedly  some  growth  during  mild 
weather  in  winter,  and,  as  evaporation  must  be  going  on  most 
of  the  time  from  twigs  and  buds,  water  must  be  supplied  from 
the  roots. 

The  Amount  of  Water  I,ost  by  Trees  in  Winter.  After 
many  careful  experiments,  A.  L.  Knisely,  M.  S.,  concludes  that 
a  Soft  Maple  standing  30  or  35  feet  high  with  a  trunk  15  to  18 
inches  in  diameter  near  the  ground,  exposing  from  750  to  800 
square  feet  of  bark  surface,  may  lose  daily  by  evaporation  from 
6  to  7  pounds  of  water  when  dormant.  An  apple  tree  30  years 
old  and  15  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base,  exposing  from  800 
to  1,000  square  feet  of  bark  surface,  may  lose  daily  while  dormant 
from  10  to  13  pounds  of  water.  These  figures  are  from  results 
obtained  during  winter  weather  in  New  York,  where  the  relative 
humidity  of  the  air  is  higher  than  in  Minnesota,  which  would 
lessen  evaporation.  It  is  probable  that  during  our  winters  here 
the  evaporation  from  trees  will  greatly  exceed  that  in  New 
York,  and  that  greater  evaporation  is  nearly  always  responsible 
for  some  trees  being  tender  here  and  hardy  in  New  York  and 
other  places  with  similar  conditions. 

We  know  that  in  this  section  after  a  prolonged  period  of 
severely  cold  weather,  the  twigs  of  Soft  Maple,  Apple  and  some 


20  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

other  trees  have  a  decidedly  shrivelled  appearance,  which  disap- 
pears after  a  few  days  of  mild  weather.  Soft  Maple  trees  stand- 
ing on  dry  land  will  sometimes  in  the  spring  appear  to  have  been 
dried  out  and  to  have  become  partly  or  entirely  dead.  It  is 
probable  that  during  our  coldest  weather  very  little,  if  any, 
moisture  can  be  suppl'ed  from  the  roots,  which  may  account  for 
this  shrivelled  condition. 

Second  Growth.  Sometimes  warm,  moist  weather  in  late 
autumn  will  cause  trees  to  start  a  strong  second  growth  in 
October,  which  draws  on  the  stored  plant  food  and  perhaps 
exhausts  it,  and  winter  sets  in  before  the  tissues  have  again 
become  hard  and  stored  with  food.  In  such  cases  trees  are 
liable  to  injury.  No  characteristic  of  hardiness  is  more  impor- 
tant in  plants  than  that  of  early  maturity  of  wood. 

One  part  of  the  tree  may  start  into  growth  without  regard 
to  the  conditions  of  the  other  parts.  For  instance,  a  branch 
brought  into  a  warm  room  in  winter  without  severing  it  from 
the  tree  will  grow  for  some  time.  -Sun  scald  is  probably  due 
to  the  bark  on  the  side  most  exposed  to  the  sun  starting  into 
growth  very  early,  after  which  a  sudden  freeze  destroys  the 
young  cellular  tissue. 


CHAPTER  IL 

THE  FOREST. 

Forest  is  a  Term  variously  applied  in  this  country.  As  here 
used  it  applies  to  all  collections  of  trees  except  such  as  are 
grown  for  fruit.  It  may,  then,  apply  to  a  piece  of  land  on  which 
seedlings  have  only  recently  been  planted,  or  to  what  is  termed 
brush  land,  or  to  land  heavily  stocked  with  trees. 

TREE  GROWTH  AFFECTED  BY  LIGHT  CONDITIONS. 

So  Important  is  Sunlight  to  the  Growth  of  Trees  that  it 
is  sometimes  said  to  be  the  purpose  of  trees  to  convert  sunlight 
into  wood.  Practically  all  trees  make  their  most  rapid  growth 
in  full  sunlight  There  is,  however,  quite  a  difference  in  the 
power  of  various  trees  to  get  along  with  small  amounts  of  direct 
sunlight.  It  is  the  object  of  good  forestry  to  grow  as  much 
good  timber  as  possible  upon  the  land,  just  as  good  agriculture 
consists  in  growing  the  largest  amount  of  farm  crops  upon  the 
land.  An  acre  of  land  covered  with  trees  of  the  same  species, 
it  is  estimated,  will  lay  on  the  same  amount  of  woody  fibre 
whether  the  stems  are  large  or  small,  the  amount  of  wood 
formed  each  year  being  in  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  foliage 
covering  the  land  that  is  in  good  active  condition. 

It  is  known  that  some  trees  will  do  very  well  in  the  shade 
of  other  trees.  This  gives  a  chance  to  grow  trees  in  a  sort  of 
two-storied  fashion,  having  the  land  nearly  covered  with  the 
foliage  of  one  set  of  trees  which  require  the  full  exposure  to 
sunlight,  and  underneath  the  land  covered  with  the  foliage  of 
trees  which  will  endure  the  shade  of  those  above  them,  just  as 
pumpkins  can  be  grown  under  corn.  On  account  of  this 
peculiarity  of  trees,  foresters  have  divided  them  into  two 
classes,  one  of  which  is  called  light  demanding  and  the 


22  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

other  shade  enduring.  The  words  tolerant  and  intol- 
erant are  also  used  as  distinguishing  the  peculiarity  of  trees  in 
this  respect,  and  they  are  perhaps  better  terms,  Trees  that  are 
knoVn  as  tolerant  generally  have  a  thicker  mass  of  foliage 
than  those  that  are  intolerant  of  shade.  This  simply  means 
that  their  lower  leaves  can  withstand  the  shade  of  their  upper 
leaves.  While  it  is  not  an  absolute  rule  that  tolerant  species 
have  a  thick  mass  of  foliage  and  intolerant  trees  open  foliage, 
yet  it  is  so  generally  true  that  where  the  characteristics  of  a 
tree  are  known  it  serves  as  a  very  reliable  indication.  Most 
trees  are  much  more  tolerant  of  shade  when  young  than  when 
old.  Among  our  tolerant  trees  may  be  mentioned  the  Spruce, 
Oak,  Balsam,  White  Cedar,  Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam  and  Hard 
Maple.  Among  our  intolerant  species  are  Poplars,  Cotton- 
wood,  Willows,  Soft  Maple  and  Birch.  Of  our  native  pines, 
the  White  Pine  is  much  more  tolerant  than  either  the  Jack  or 
the  Norway  Pine,  which  are  quite  intolerant  of  shade  and  soon 
succumb  if  they  are  protected  from  the  full  sunlight. 

Trees  Protect  One  Another  and  are  Mutually  Helpful, 
and  many  trees  that  are  quite  hardy  on  the  limits  of  their 
growth  when  grown  in  groups,  will  fail  if  grown  singly,  as  for 
instance  the  Hard  Maple  in  exposed  parts  of  Minnesota.  Trees 
also  interfere  with  one  another  and  struggle  for  light  and  soil 
conditions,  and  the  weaker  trees  are  destroyed.  So  true  is  this 
that  where  the  land  is  thickly  seeded  with  even-aged  trees,  they 
may  all  become  weak  and  sickly  because  of  hindering  one 
another.  On  the  other  hand,  this  crowding  of  trees  forces  them 
to  take  on  an  upward  growth  and  kills  out  the  lower  branches. 
Trees  growing  under  such  conditions  make  long  timber  free 
from  knots,  which  is  therefore  most  valuable. 


SOIL  CONDITIONS. 

Water  Supply.  Water  is  the  most  important  element  in 
soils  for  tree  growth,  and  the  greatest  attention  must  be  given 
to  its  conservation  and  distribution  through  the  soil.  Trees 
do  not  grow  to  best  advantage  in  very  wet  or  in  very  dry  soil, 
although  some  can  live  and  almost  thrive  under  such  unfavora- 
ble conditions.  There  is  very  little  land,  except  in  the  arid 


SOIL  CONDITIONS.  23 

region,  but  that  will  support  some  form  of  tree  growth.  The 
soil  best  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  trees  is  one  that  is  moderately 
but  evenly  moist,  porous,  deep  and  well  drained;  yet  with  a 
subsoil  compact  enough  to  transmit  the  subsoil  water  from 
below  upwards  without  its  being  so  solid  that  it  cannot  be  easily 
penetrated  by  the  roots.  It  does  not  matter  about  its  being 
stony  if  it  has  these  qualities.  On  land  that  is -very  wet  in 
this  section,  as  the  muskegs  of  northern  Minnesota,  which  are 
covered  with  Tamarack  and  Spruce,  the  trees  never  get  to  be 
of  large  size.  In  the  case  of  one  Spruce  grown  on  such  land,  73 
years  was  occupied  in  growing  a  tree  il/%  inches  in  diameter, 
and  a  Tamarack  under  similar  conditions  formed  a  diameter  of 
only  i  i-io  inches  in  48  years.  We  also  find  that  growth  is 
extremely  slow  on  very  dry  land.  On  very  open  porous  land 
the  water  sinks  quickly  out  of  reach  of  the  roots,  and  where  the 
soil  is  too  compact  it  cannot  be  penetrated  by  the  water  or  by 
the  roots,  so  that  on  such  soils  trees  generally  suffer  for  moisture 
a  part  of  the  year. 

Relation  Between  Trees  and  Soils.  The  growth  of  trees 
and  the  kinds  growing  on  land  are  good  though  not  infallible 
indexes  to  the  value  of  the  soil  for  agricultural  purposes.  For 
instance,  land  on  which  Black  Walnut,  Hard  Maple,  Hackberry 
or  Hickory  grow  to  large  size  is  of  good  quality  for  grasses, 
grains  and  other  agricultural  crops,  while  Black  Oak  is  gener- 
ally abundant  on  dry,  gravelly  ridges  and  sandy  soil.  Where 
White  Pine  in  this  section  is  the  prevailing  tree  the  land  is  gen- 
erally of  good  quality.  Norway  Pine  will  endure  more  drouth 
than  the  White  Pine,  outgrows  it,  and  becomes  the  prevailing 
tree  on  drier  land,  while  the  Jack  Pine  is  the  most  abundant  on 
the  very  dry  sandy  lands  of  Northern  Minnesota.  In  the  more 
humid  climate  of  the  eastern  states  the  White  Pine  grows  on 
very  sandy  soils. 

Mechanical  Condition  of  I,and  in  Forests.  The  agri- 
culturist aims  to  keep  the  soil  porous,  yet  moderately  compact, 
that  the  roots  may  penetrate  it  easily  and  the  subsoil  waters 
may  be  readily  transmitted  upwards  to  the  roots  of  plants.  He 
aims  to  prevent  the  soil  from  becoming  too  compact  and  from 
the  loss  of  water  from  evaporation  by  cultivating  the  surface 
soil,  and  to  keep  out  standing  water  by  drainage.  The  forest 


24  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

grower  cannot  rely  upon  such  methods,  because  they  are  too 
expensive  or  entirely  impracticable.  He  may  indeed  plow  for 
his  first  planting  and  cultivate  the  young  trees,  but  after  a  few 
years  cultivation  will  become  impossible  and  the  effects  of  the 
first  preparation  will  be  lost.  He  must  therefore  attain  his 
object  in  another  way,  that  is.  by  mulching  tjhe  soil.  The 
shading  is  done  at  first  by  planting  very  closely,  so  that  the 
ground  may  be  protected  as  soon  as  possible  from  sun  and  wind. 
The  shade  should  be  maintained  well  throughout  the  life  of  the 
tree,  even  if  more  planting  is  necessary  to  accomplish  it,  and  if 
in  later  life  the  trees  get  thin  in  the  tops  or  die  out,  it  may 
become  necessary  to  plant  underbrush  to  protect  the  land. 

Undergrowth  in  Forests  may  be  rather  injurious  in  pre- 
venting the  proper  development  of  young  trees,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally very  beneficial  in  retarding  evaporation  from  the  surface 
soil,  in  retaining  the  snow  in  the  spring  and  in  killing  out  grass 
and  weeds. 

Forest  Floor  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the  mulch  on  the 
ground  in  forests.  This  is  made  up  of  the  fallen  twigs  and 
leaves  which  remain  on  the  ground,  where  they  slowly  decay 
and  form  a  cover  of  rich  mould  or  humus.  This  protective 
covering  serves  a  most  useful  purpose;  it  permits  the  rain  and 
snow  waters  to  penetrate  the  soil  without  at  the  same  time  mak- 
ing it  too  compact,  thus  keeping  the  soil  granular  so  that  the 
air  can  enter,  and  in  the  best  condition  for  conducting  water, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  prevents  washing  away  of  the  land  and 
too  rapid  or  excessive  evaporation  from  the  surface;  the  humus 
is  also  an  active  agent  in  aiding  decomposition  of  the  mineral 
substances  in  the  soil. 

Subsoil.  Tree  growth  is  less  dependent  on  the  condition  of 
the  surface  soil  and  more  dependent  on  the  subsoil  than  is  the 
growth  of  agricultural  crops.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  drift- 
ing sand  overlying  a  moist  subsoil,  it  has  been  found  that  where 
pains  are  taken  to  get  the  young  trees  started  they  will  often 
do  well  although  such  land  is  poorly  adapted  to  agricultural 
crops.  There  are  many  acres  of  land  in  Minnesota  and  Wis- 
consin that  have  such  conditions,  and  they  should  seldom  be 
entirely  cleared  of  trees. 

Washing  of  Soils.      The  soils  most  likely  to  wash  badly 


SOIL  CONDITIONS.  25 

are  those  that  are  fine  grained  without  much  adhesive  power, 
such  as  fine  sand  and  some  kinds  of  clays.  When,  however, 
such  soils  have  a  forest  growth  on  them  they  are  protected  from 
washing  by  the  forest  floor,  tree  roots  and  the  humus  in  the 
soil.  Soil  which  contains  large  quantities  of  humus  does  not 
wash  much,  since  the  particles  of  organic  matter  bind  it 
together;  thus  we  find  that  newly-cleared  timber  land  which 
contains  large  amounts  of  humus  may  not  wash  much  for  a 
number  of  years  after  the  clearing,  and  then  commence  to  wash 
very  badly.  The  washing  away  then  is  due  to  the  humus  hav- 
ing become  used  up  and  there  being  nothing  left  to  bind  the  soil 
particles  together.  In  such  cases  the  application  of  organic 
matter  will  help  very  materially.  For  this  purpose  manure, 
straw  or  other  material  may  be  applied,  or  crops  like  clover  and 
the  grasses,  which  leave  considerable  organic  matter,  may  be 
grown  on  the  land.  Crops  that  leave  very  little  humus  in  the 
ground,  such  as  nursery  stock,  which  is  dug  out  by  the  roots, 
are  most  harmful  in  exhausting  the  humus  in  the  soil,  and  land 
used  for  this  purpose  needs  heavy  manuring  with  stable  manure 
and  an  occasional  seeding  down  to  grass  or  clover. 

Alkali  Soils.  In  the  prairie  portions  and  occasionally 
elsewhere  in  this  section,  we  have  a  kind  of  soil  in  which  there 
is  a  superabundance  of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda.  This 
kind  of  soil  seldom  extends  over  large  areas  and  generally 
occurs  in  places  lower  than  the  surrounding  land.  In  some 
places  the  alkali  occurs  in  such  abundance  as  to  coat  the  surface 
of  the  soil  with  a  white  crust.  On  such  land  very  few  agricul- 
tural crops  or  trees  grow  well.  The  leaves  of  the  trees  growing 
there  generally  take  on  a  yellowish  color  and  the  wood  does 
not  mature  well  in  the  autumn.  Such  land  should  be  drained  so 
that  the  surface  water  at  least  can  run  off.  In  this  way  the 
alkali  can  generally  be  washed  out  in  a  few  years.  It  is  seldom 
advisable  to  plant  trees  on  these  places,  but  if  this  seems  desira- 
ble, as  is  sometimes  the  case  on  prairies,  the  best  trees  to  plant 
are  probably  the  Cottonwood  and  White  Willow. 


26  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


EFFECT  OF  SLOPE  AND  ASPECT  ON  TREE  GROWTH. 

The  slope  of  the  land  affords  drainage  and  so  affects  the 
growth  of  trees,  but  trees  will  grow  on  any  slope,  even  on 
precipices,  if  they  can  find  room  for  their  roots  and  the  soil  is 
somewhat  moist.  The  direction  of  the  slope  usually  has  a  very 
marked  effect  on  the  growth  of  vegetation.  This  is  especially 
the  case  where  high  ranges  of  hills  and  other  local  conditions 
modify  the  climate. 

A  Northern  Slope  receives  no  full  sunlight;  the  sun's  rays 
fall  obliquely  in  the  morning  or  toward  evening,  according  to 
the  angle  of  elevation.  The  winds  it  receives  in  winter  are 
colder  than  those  received  by  the  southern  slope,  but  the  few 
winds  which  strike  it  during  the  growing  season  are  not  strong, 
hot  or  very  dry.  As  the  vegetation  is  a  little  delayed  on  a 
northern  slope,  there  is  less  danger  from  late  spring  frosts  than 
on  a  sunnier  aspect,  and,  as  the  snow  melts  slowly,  there  is  a 
better  chance  for  its  waters  to  soak  into  the  ground.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  facts  trees  are  less  liable  to  suffer  from  drouth 
on  the  same  kind  of  land  with  a  northern  than  with  a  southern 
exposure.  The  trees  keep  a  more  regular  form  and  growth  is 
more  uniform  and  certain.  It  will  generally  be  found  that 
where  timber  is  cut  off  from  a  northern  slope  growth  renews 
itself  very  quickly,  for  tree  seeds  are  most  likely  to  grow  undei 
the  conditions  found  there. 

An  Eastern  Slope  receives  the  sun  in  the  cool  morning 
hours  when  the  temperature  and  light  are  moderate.  It  is  not 
exposed  to  our  hot,  dry  winds  nor  to  the  intense  heat  of  the 
sun.  The  soil  retains  its  moisture  fairly  well  and  trees  make  a 
good  growth.  For  trees  it  ranks  next  in  value  to  a  northern 
slope. 

A  Southern  Slope  receives  the  most  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  the  full  force  of  our  hot,  dry  winds  and  beating  rains 
during  the  growing  season.  Consequently  vegetation  is  more 
liable  to  injury  by  late  spring  frosts,  because  of  starting  earlier 
in  the  spring,  than  in  any  other  location.  The  soil  is  most 
liable  to  erosion  from  beating  summer  rains  and  dries  up  most 
quickly  after  the  spring  rains.  The  trees  grow  irregular  in 
form,  the  seeds  seldom  start  well  on  southern  or  western  slopes. 


ASPECT.  27 

and  when  once  cleared  tree  growth  is  often  difficult  to  renew. 
As  proof  of  the  importance  of  these  conditions  as  affecting  tree 
growth  we  have  the  commonly  observed  fact  that  the  south 
and  west  sides  of  steep  hills  and  mountains  are  more  likely  to 
be  bare  than  any  others.  This  can  be  very  plainly  seen  on  the 
bluffs  along  the  Mississippi  River  in  Minnesota. 

A  Western  Slope  receives  the  sun's  rays  obliquely,  but  in 
the  warmest  part  of  the  day,  and  in  this  section  gets  the  full 
force  of  our  hot  dry  southwest  winds.  The  effect  of  such  an 
exposure  on  growth  is  about  the  same  as  the  southern  slope. 


CHAPTER  IIL 

FOREST  INFLUENCES. 

Upon  careful  observation  it  will  be  found  that  a  single  large 
spreading  tree  growing  in  an  open  field  appreciably  affects 
climatic  and  soil  conditions  in  the  following  ways: 

(i.)  During  the  day  the  ground  under  a  tree  is  protected  from 
the  sun's  rays  and  is  therefore  cooler  than  soil  not  protected. 
As  a  result  of  this  protection,  the  air  under  the  tree  is  cooler 
than  the  air  in  the  open,  and,  as  it  is  constantly  in  circulation, 
tends  to  cool  the  air  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  tree  on 
sunny  days. 

(2.)  At  night  a  tree  retards  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
ground  under  it.  This  tends  to  equalize  the  temperature  of  not 
only  the  soil  and  air  under  the  tree,  but  that  in  the  near 
vicinity.  Therefore,  though  a  tree  may  reduce  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  and  air  on  sunny  days  or  during  a  short  period  of 
warm  weather,  it  may,  on  the  other  hand,  increase  the  temper- 
ature at  night  or  during  a  short  period  of  cool  weather.  For 
example  it  may  be  noticed  that  vegetables  growing  near  trees 
are  frequently  uninjured  by  autumn  frosts  which  destroy  those 
growing  in  the  open. 

(3.)  A  tree  aids  in  retaining  water  in  the  surface  soil  to  the 
leeward  by  breaking  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  thus  retarding 
evaporation,  for  it  is  known  that  evaporation  increases  with  the 
rapidity  of  the  air  currents.  It  retains  the  water  in  the  surface 
soil  under  the  tree  by  shading  the  soil  and  thus  retarding  evap- 
oration. ^The  large  amount  of  water  which  is  transpired  by  a 
tree  is  largely  drawn  from  the  subsoil,  and  this  increases  the 
humidity  of  the  surrounding  air  without  drawing  on  the  water 
of  the  surface  soil.  But  some  kinds  of  trees  take  up  so  much 
of  the  water  from  the  soil  as  to  preclude  the  growing  of  crops 
in  such  places  near  them. 


FOREST  INFLUENCES.  29 

(4.)  The  leaves  that  fall  to  the  ground  form  a  mulch  which  pre- 
vents the  drying  out  of  the  soil.  They  check  the  flow  of  water 
over  the  land,  thus  preventing  the  washing  away  or  compacting 
of  the  soil  by  heavy  rains,  and  giving  the  water  a  better  chance 
to  soak  into  the  ground. 

(5.)  A  tree  protects  from  the  destructive  force  of  severe  winds. 
A  single  tree  or  group  of  trees  may  seem  to  have  little  effect 
on  tornadoes,  but  large  groups  of  trees  may  possibly  prevent 
their  formation  or  greatly  lessen  their  violence.  Protection 
from  severe  winds  may  greatly  affect  the  growing  of  plants, 
since  on  account  of  the  winds  many  plants  that  may  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  when  protected  by  shelter  belts  cannot  be 
grown  on  the  open  prairie.  This  protection,  when  present, 
serves  to  lessen  the  fuel  necessary  to  warm  dwelling  houses  and 
also  lessens  the  food  eaten  by  animals.  It  also  keeps  the  surface 
soil  in  fields  from  being  blown  away. 

In  these  five  principal  ways  a  single  tree  affects  the  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  soil  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  To  be  sure, 
some  of  them  are  not  so  very  evident  where  a  single  tree  grows 
in  an  open  field,  but  where  trees  are  growing  in  groups  or  on 
large  tracts  of  land  all  of  these  factors  are  important  in  modify- 
ing climate  and  soil  conditions,  and  will  be  referred  to  at  greater 
length.  ;••;» 

INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  WATER  SUPPLIES. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  proper  disposition  of  water  upon 
the  land  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  growing  of  crops, 
and  it  is  equally  evident  that  nature's  changeful  and  wasteful 
ways  of  supplying  water  to  crops  are  not  the  best  ways  of  so 
doing,  for  we  know  that  not  only  in  the  arid  regions,  but  in  gen- 
eral wherever  irrigation  is  used,  crops  are  produced  in  greatest 
abundance  and  certainty.  .This  once  recognized,  then  the  proper 
distribution  of  the  available  water  supplies  becomes  a  question 
of  immediate  interest.  Human  effort  can,  to  a  limited  extent, 
direct  the  laws  of  nature  that  influence  climate  and  soil  condi- 
tions, and  it  becomes  necessary  that  we  have  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  forces  that  are  at  work  in  nature  in  order  that  we  may 
know  where  we  may  or  may  not  expect  to  be  successful  in 
directing  them.  In  order  that  we  may  better  understand  this 


30  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

subject,  I  quote  the  following  extract  on  forest  influences  from 
the  report  of  the  Forestry  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  1889,  with  a  few  changes  in  the  nature  of  abbre- 
viations: 

"The  water  capital  of  the  earth  may  be  regarded  as  consist- 
ing of  two  parts,  the  fixed  capital  and  the  circulating  capital. 
The  first  is  represented  not  only  in  the  waters  on  the  earth  but 
also  by  that  amount  of  water  which  remains  suspended  in  the 
atmosphere,  being  part  of  the  original  atmospheric  water-masses 
which,  after  the  rest  had  fallen  to  the  cooled  earth,  remained  in 
suspension  and  is  never  precipitated. 

"The  circulating  water  capital  is  that  part  which  is  evap- 
orated from  water  surfaces,  from  the  soil,  from  vegetation,  and 
which,  after  having  temporarily  been  held  by  the  atmosphere  in 
quantities  locally  varying  according  to  the  variations  in  tem- 
perature, is  returned  again  to  the  earth  by  precipitation  in  the 
form  of  rain,  snow  and  dew.  There  it  is  evaporated  again,  either 
immediately  or  after  having  percolated  through  the  soil  and 
been  retained  for  a  shorter  or  longer  time  before  being  returned 
to  the  surface,  or,  without  such  percolation,  it  runs  through 
open  channels  to  the  rivers  and  seas,  continually  returning  in 
part  into  the  atmosphere  by  evaporation.  Practically,  then,  the 
total  amount  of  water  capital  remains  constant;  only  one  part 
Of  it — the  circulating  capital — changes  in  varying  quantities  its 
location,  and  is  of  interest  to  us  more  with  reference  to  its  local 
distribution  and  the  channels  by  which  it  becomes  available  for 
human  use  and  vegetation  than  with  reference  to  its  practically 
unchanged  total  quantity. 

"As  to  the  amount  of  this  circulating  water  capital  we  have 
no  knowledge;  hardly  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  amount 
circulating  in  any  given  locality  is  possible  with  our  present 
means  of  measurement;  for  it  appears  that  so  unevenly  is  the 
precipitation  distributed  that  two  rain  gauges  almost  side  by 
side  will  indicate  varying  amounts,  and  much  of  the  moisture 
which  is  condensed  and  precipitated  in  dews  escapes  our  obser- 
vation, or  at  least  our  measurements,  entirely.  Thus  it  occurs 
that  while  the  amount  of  water  calculated  to  be  discharged 
annually  by  the  river  Rhone  into  the  sea  appears  to  correspond 
to  a  rainfall  of  44  inches,  the  records  give  only  a  precipitation 
over  its  watershed  of  27.6  inches. 


FORESTS  AND  WATER  SUPPLY.  31 

"We  must  therefore  enter  into  our  discussions  acknowledg- 
ing ignorance  of  one  of  the  most  important  factors,  at  least  as 
to  its  numerical  or  quantitive  value. 

"The  distribution  of  the  circulating  water  capital  is  influenced 
by  various  agencies.  The  main  factor  which  sets  the  capital 
afloat  is  the  sun,  which,  by  its  heat  and  the  air  currents  caused 
by  it,  and  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  produces  the  evaporation 
which  fills  the  atmosohere  with  vapor.  Anything,  therefore, 
that  influences  the  intensity  of  insolation,  the  action  of  the  sun, 
or  obstructs  the  passage  of  winds,  must  influence  the  local  dis- 
tribution of  the  water  capital.  The  great  cosmic  influences 
which  produce  the  variability  of  all  climatic  conditions,  and 
therefore  also  of  the  circulating  water  capital,  are  the  position  of 
the  earth's  axis  to  the  sun,  by  which  the  angle  and  therefore  the 
heat  value  of  the  sun's  rays  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  earth 
and  at  different  times  of  the  year;  the  distribution  of  land  and 
water  areas,  which  produces  a  difference  of  insolation  because 
the  water  has  less  heat  capacity  than  the  land,  and  which  also 
influences  the  direction  of  air  and  sea  currents;  the  configura- 
tion of  the  earth,  by  which  the  density  of  the  atmosphere  is 
made  unequal,  and  in  consequence  of  which  differences  of  inso- 
lation and  of  air  temperature  are  induced.  Thus  we  have  not 
only  climatic  zones,  but  also  continental  climates  and  mountain 
climates  in  opposition  to  coast  climates  and  plain  or  valley  cli- 
mates. 

"While  this  classification  of  cosmic  climates  satisfies  the 
climatologist,  there  are  many  local  climates  to  be  found  within 
the  range  of  the  cosmic,  and  the  local  climatic  conditions  are 
those  which  affect  human  life  and  human  occupations  most  sen- 
sibly. 

"The  same  causes,  different  only  in  degree,  which  modify 
the  cosmic  climates,  making  a  classification  of  the  same  possi- 
ble, effect  further  modifications  and  give  rise  to  local  climates; 
these  causes  are  different  in  the  degree  of  insolation,  obstruction 
to  air  currents,  presence  of  water  surfaces,  or  moisture-laden, 
air  strata. 

"Among  the  factors  which  thus  modify  the  cosmic  climate 
and  help  to  produce  a  local  climate  differing  from  other  local 
climates,  the  soil  cover,  and  especially  the  presence  of  forest 
areas,  is  claimed  as  one  that,  under  certain  conditions,  is  potent: 


32  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

and  this  factor,  being  under  the  control  of  human  agency  more 
than  any  other  possible  modifier  of  climate,  must  therefore  be 
of  greatest  interest  to  us.  It  is  clear,  from  what  has  been  stated 
so  far,  that  the  influences  of  the  forest,  if  any,  will  be  due  mainly 
to  its  action  as  a  cover  protecting  the  soil  and  air  against  insola- 
tion and  against  winds.  That  the  nature  of  a  cover,  its  density, 
thickness,  and  its  proper  position  has  everything  to  do  with  the 
amount  of  protection  it  affords,  everybody  will  admit.  A  mos- 
quito net  is  a  cover,  so  is  a  linen  sheet  or  a  woolen  blanket,  yet 
the  protection  they  afford  is  different  in  degree  and  may  become 
practically  none.  It  will  also  be  conceded  that  it  makes  a  great 
difference  whether  the  cover  be  placed  before  or  behind  the 
wind.  Just  so  with  the  influence  of  the  forest;  it  makes  all  the 
difference  whether  we  have  to  do  with  a  deciduous  or  conifer- 
ous, a  dense  or  an  open,  a  young  low  or  an  old  high  growth, 
and  what  position  it  occupies  with  reference  to  other  climatic 
elements,  especially  to  prevailing  winds  and  water  surfaces.  In 
the  following  discussions,  when  the  word  forest  is  used,  unless 
differently  stated,  a  dense  growth  of  timber  is  meant. 

"The  question  of  forest  influences  on  water  supplies  can  be 
considered  under  three  heads,  namely — influence  upon  precipi- 
tation or  distribution  of  atmospheric  water;  influences  upon 
conservation  of  available  water  supplies;  influence  upon  the  dis- 
tribution or  'run-off'  of  these  supplies. 

INFLUENCE  UPON  PRECIPITATION. 

"Whether  forest  areas  are,  or  are  not,  capable  of  appreciably 
increasing  precipitation  within  their  limits  or  on  neighboring 
ground  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute,  and  the  complexity  of  the 
elements  which  must  enter  into  the  discussion  has  so  far  baf- 
fled solution  based  upon  definite  and  strictly  scientific  observa- 
tion. Yet  new  evidence  is  accumulating  all  the  time  which 
apparently  shows  that  under  certain  conditions  forest  areas 
obtain  larger  precipitations  than  open  grounds,  that  is,  they 
may  increase  at  least  the  amount  of  precipitation  over  their  own 
immediate  and  near  lying  areas. 

[In  Minnesota  popular  opinion  inclines  to  the  belief  that 
there  is  a  close  connection  between  the  existence  of  forests  and 
the  rainfall  of  this  section,  and  that  with  the  disappearance  of 


ELEMENTS  OF  DISSIPATION.  33 

our  forests  will  come  a  much  more  rigorous  climate  and  a 
decrease  in  rainfall.  But  the  records  of  the  weather  bureau 
do  not  show  that  there  is  any  connection  between  the  two  or 
that  there  has  been  any  apparent  change  in  the  general  climate 
or  amount  of  rainfall  due  to  the  removal  of  our  forests.  The 
flow  of  water  in  most  of  our  rivers,  and  in  many  cases  the  flow  of 
water  from  springs,  and  the  height  of  the  water  table  in  the  land, 
have  been  most  seriously  affected  by  the  removal  of  our  forests 
and  should  be  regarded  as  the  ways  by  which  our  water  supply 
is  to  suffer  most  severely  from  deforestation.] 

DISPOSAL  OF  WATER  SUPPLIES. 

"Given  a  certain  amount  of  precipitation  in  rain  or  snow  over 
a  certain  area,  the  disposal  of  the  water  after  it  has  fallen,  and 
the  influence  of  the  forest  cover  on  its  disposal,  require  our 
attention.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  can  divide  the  ele- 
ments which  need  consideration  in  this  discussion  into  elements 
of  dissipation,  elements  of  conservation,  elements  of  distribu- 
tion. 

"The  difference  in  effect  between  the  first  two  classes  of  ele- 
ments will  give  us  an  idea  of  the  amount  of  available  water  sup- 
ply or  run-off  resulting  from  precipitation,  while  the  third  class 
bears  upon  the  methods  of  distributing  the  available  water  sup- 
ply. 

ELEMENTS  OF  DISSIPATION 

"Elements  of  dissipation  are  those  which  diminish  the  avail- 
able water  supplies;  they  are  represented  in  the  quantity  of 
water  which  is  prevented  by  interception  from  reaching  the 
ground,  in  the  quantity  dissipated  by  evaporation,  in  the  quan- 
tity used  by  plants  in  their  growth,  and  in  that  used  by  trans- 
piration during  the  process  of  growing. 

Interception.  The  amount  of  rainfall  and  snow* which  is 
prevented  by  a  forest  from  reaching  the  soil  varies  considerably 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  precipitation  and  to  the  kind  of 
trees  which  form  the  forest,  as  well  as  the  density  and  age  of  the 
growth. 

"A  light  drizzling  rain  of  short  duration  may  be  almost 
entirely  intercepted  by  the  foliage  and  at  once  returned  to  the 
atmosphere  by  evaporation;  if,  however,  the  rain  continues, 
3 


34  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

although  fine,  the  water  will  run  off  at  last  from  the  foliage  and 
along  the  trunks. 

''Altogether  for  the  rainfall  conditions  of  Austria,  Prussia 
and  Switzerland,  where  measurements  have  been  made,  a  dense 
forest  growth  will  on  the  average  intercept  23  per  cent  of  the 
precipitation;  but  if  allowance  be  made  for  the  water  running 
down  the  trunks,  this  loss  is  reduced  to  not  more  than  12  per 
cent. 

"The  amount  of  interception  in  the  open  growths  which 
characterize  many  of  our  western  forest  areas  would  be  consid- 
erably smaller,  especially  as  the  rains  usually  fall  with  great 
force,  and  much  of  the  precipitation  is  in  the  form  of  snow. 
Although  branches  and  foliage  catch  a  goodly  amount  of  this, 
the  winds  usually  shake  it  down,  and  consequently  but  very  little 
snow  is  lost  to  the  ground  by  interception  of  the  foliage. 

"There  is  also  a  certain  amount  of  water  intercepted  by  the 
soil  cover  and  held  back  by  the  soil  itself,  which  must  be  sat- 
urated before  any  of  it  can  run  off  or  drain  away.  This  amount, 
which  is  eventually  dissipated  by  evaporation  and  transpiration, 
depends,  of  course,  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  its  coven 
especially  upon  their  capacity  to  absorb  and  retain  water. 

"The  water  capacity  of  litter  depends  upon  its  nature  and  of 
course  its  thickness  to  a  certain  degree,  but  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  soils. 

"Altogether  an  appreciable  amount  of  the  precipitation  does 
not  run  off  or  drain  through  the  forest  cover,  but  is  retained 
by  it;  yet,  while  this  is  apparently  a  loss,  we  shall  see  further  on 
that  this  moisture  retained  in  the  upper  strata  fulfills  an  impor- 
tant office  in  checking  a  much  greater  loss  due  to  evaporation, 
and  thus  become  an  element  of  conservation." 

Evaporation.  The  loss  by  evaporation  after  the  water  has 
reached  the  ground  depends  in  the  first  place  upon  the  amount 
of  direct  insolation  of  the  soil,  and  hence  its  temperature,  which 
again  influences  the  temperature  of  the  air.  The  nature  of  the 
soil  cover,  the  relative  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere 
and  the  circulation  of  the  air  are  also  factors  determining  the 
rate  of  evaporation.  The  importance  of  evaporation  as  an  ele- 
ment of  dissipation  may  be  learned  from  the  experiments  of 
Prof.  T.  Russell,  Jr.,  of  the  U.  S.  Signal  Service,  made  in  1888. 
We  learn  from  these  that  the  evaporation  on  the  western  plains 


WIND-BREAKING  POWER  OE  FORESTS.         35 

and  plateaus  may,  during  the  year,  amount  to  from  50  to  80 
inches,  nay,  in  spots,  100  inches,  while  the  rainfall  (diminishing 
in  reverse  ratio)  over  this  area  is  from  30  to  12  inches  and  less. 

"Thus,  in  Denver,  where  the  maximum  annual  precipitation 
may  reach  20  inches,  the  evaporation  during  one  year  was  69 
inches.  This  deficiency  of  49  inches  naturally  must  be  supplied 
by  waters  coming  from  the  mountains,  where  the  precipitation 
is  large  and  the  evaporation  low.  (On  Pike's  Peak  alone  there 
may  be  45.6  minus  26.8  or  18.8  inches  to  spare.)" 

Evaporation  from  the  soil  is  dependent  upon  its  covering, 
and  this  is  important,  as  the  soil  in  forests  is  always  covered 
with  dead  branches,  leaves,  etc.  In  some  experiments  which 
were  carried  on  in  Germany  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  1883,  to  determine  the  amount  of.  evaporation  from 
different  soils,  it  was  found  that  from  1,000  square  centimeters 
of  bare  ground  5,730  grams  of  water  were  evaporated,  and  that 
from  the  same  area  of  similar  soil  covered  with  two  inches  of 
straw  575  grams  were  evaporated.  This  shows  that  the  naked 
soil  evaporated  more  than  ten  times  as  much  as  the  covered 
soil.  It  is  evident  then  that  the  soil  covering  has  an  important 
function  in  preventing  evaporation. 

Wind-breaking  Power  of  Forests.  If  the  loss  by  evap- 
oration from  an  open  field  be  compared  with  that  of  a  forest- 
covered  ground,  as  a  matter  of  course  it  will  be  found  to  be  less 
in  the  latter  case,  for  the  shade  not  only  reduces  the  influence 
of  the  sun  upon  the  soil,  but  also  keeps  the  air  under  its  cover 
relatively  moister,  therefore  less  capable  of  absorbing  moisture 
from  the  soil  by  evaporation.  In  addition,  the  circulation  of 
the  air  is  impeded  between  the  trunks,  and  this  influence  upon 
available  water  supply,  the  wind-breaking  power  of  the  forest, 
must  be  considered  as  among  the  most  important  factors  of 
water  preservation.  Especially  is  this  the  case  on  the  Western 
plains  and  on  those  Western  mountain  ranges  bearing  only  a 
scattered  tree  growth,  and  where,  therefore,  the  influence  of  shade 
is  but  nominal. 

The  evaporation  under  the  influence  of  the  wind  is  dependent 
not  only  on  the  temperature  and  dryness  of  the  same,  but  also 
on  its  velocity,  which  being  impeded,  the  rate  of  evaporation  is 
reduced. 


36  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Interesting  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
changes  in  the  rate  of  evaporation  effected  by  the  velocity  of  the 
wind  were  made  by  Prof.  T.  Russell,  Jr.,  of  the  Signal  Service, 
in  1887.  The  result  of  these  experiments  (made  with  Piche's 
hygrometers  whirled  around  on  an  arm  28  feet  in  length,  the 
results  of  which  were  compared  with  those  from  a  tin  dish  con- 
taining 40  cubic  centimeters  of  water  exposed  under  shelter) 
show  that,  with  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  84  degrees  and  a 
relative  humidity  of  50  per  cent,  evaporation  at  5  miles  an  hour 
was  2.2  times  greater  than  in  a  calm;  at  10  miles,  3.8;  at  15 
miles,  4.9;  at  20  miles,  5.7;  at  25  miles,  6.1,  and  at  30  miles  the 
wind  would  evaporate  6.3  times  as  much  water  as  a  calm  atmos- 
phere of  the  same  temperature  and  humidity. 

Now,  if  it  is  considered  that  the  average  velocity  of  the  winds 
which  constantly  sweep  the  Western  subarid  and  arid  plains  is 
from  10  to  15  miles,  not  rarely  attaining  a  maximum  of  50  and 
more  miles,  the  cause  of  the  aridity  is  not  far  to  seek,  and  the 
function  of  the  timber  belt  or  even  simple  windbreak  can  be 
readily  appreciated. 

Professor  King  has  found  in  experiments  made  in  Wiscon- 
sin that  the  influence  of  even  a  thin  stand  of  woodland  on  the 
rate  of  evaporation  was  considerable.  In  one  experiment  made 
in  the  month  of  May  the  instruments  were  so  placed  as  to  meas- 
ure the  evaporation  to  the  leeward  of  a  scant  hedgerow  six  to 
eight  feet  high,  having  in  it  a  few  trees  twelve  feet  high  and 
many  open  gaps.  It  was  found  that  at  300  feet  from  the  hedge 
the  evaporation  was  30.1  per  cent  greater  than  at  20  feet,,  and  at 
150  feet  it  was  7.2  per  cent  less  than  at  300  feet.  The  experiment 
was  made  during  a  moist  north  wind.  It  is  sufficiently  evident, 
therefore,  that  even  a  thin  hedgerow  exerts  an  influence  that 
can  readily  be  measured.  In  fact  the  presence  or  absence  of 
protecting  belts  of  trees  under  the  conditions  often  existing  on 
our  prairies  may  make  a  difference  between  a  good  and  a  poor 
crop.  All  who  are  acquainted  with  our  prairie  sections  know 
that  great  damage  is  often  done  to  wheat,  corn  and  other  crops 
by  the  hot  southwest  winds  which  we  are  likely  to  have  during 
the  growing  months.  In  Kansas  and  Nebraska  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1894  immense  tracts  of  corn,  fully  tasselled  out,  were 
killed  by  such  winds.  At  the  same  time  it  was  noticed  that 
where  corn  was  protected  by  trees  or  slopes  of  land,  or  where 


WIND-BREAKING  POWER  OF  FORESTS.          37 

the  humidity  of  the  wind  was  increased  by  passing  over  bodies 
of  water  or  clover  fields,  the  injury  was  greatly  lessened. 

What  the  possibilities  of  evaporation  from  hot  and  dry  winds 
may  be  can  be  learned  from  statements  regarding  the  "Foehn," 
which  is  the  hot  wind  of  Switzerland,  corresponding  to  the 
"chinook"  of  our  western  country. 

The  change  in  temperature  from  the  normal,  experienced  under 
the  influence  of  the  Fcehn,  has  been  noted  as  from  28  degrees 
to  31  degrees  Fahr..  and  a  reduction  of  relative  humidity  of  58 
per  cent.  A  Foehn  of  twelve  hours'  duration  has  been  known 
to  "eat  up"  entirely  a  snow  cover  2.^/2  feet  deep. 

In  Denver  a  chinook  has  been  known  to  induce  a  rise  in 
temperature  of  57  degrees  Fahr.  in  twenty-four  hours  (of  which 
36  degrees  in  five  minutes),  while  the  relative  humidity  sank 
from  100  to  21  per  cent. 

The  degree  of  forest  influence  upon  rate  of  evaporation  by 
breaking  the  force  of  winds  is  dependent  upon  the  extent  and 
density  of  the  forest,  and  especially  on  the  height  of  the  trees; 
for  according  to  an  elementary  law  of  mechanics  the  influence 
which  breaks  the  force  of  the  wind  is  felt  at  a  considerable  ele- 
vation above  the  trees.  This  can  be  practically  demonstrated 
by  passing  along  a  timber  plantation  on  the  wind-swept  plains. 
Even  a  thin  stand  of  young  trees  not  higher  than  five  feet  will 
absolutely  calm  the  air  within  a  considerable  distance  and  height 
beyond  the  shelter. 

Professor  King  found  that  an  oak  grove  12  to  15  feet  high 
exerted  an  appreciable  effect  in  a  gentle  breeze  at  a  distance  of 
300  feet.  In  a  strong  wind  the  effect  of  such  a  grove  would  be 
felt  at  a  much  greater  distance  to  the  leeward. 

At  the  Dominion  Experiment  Station  in  Assiniboia  Dr. 
Saunders  found  on  one  occasion  that  windbreaks  exerted  an 
appreciable  influence  at  from  50  to  80  feet  to  leeward  for  every 
foot  in  height,  but  this  was  during  a  very  severe  wind.  It  may 
probably  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  windbreaks  will 
exert  an  appreciable  influence  for  at  least  one  rod  for  every  foot 
in  height. 

It  may  not  be  necessary  to  state  that  the  damage  done  to 
crops  by  the  cold,  dry  winter  winds  is  mainly  due  to  rapid 
evaporation,  and  that  plants  are  liable  to  suffer  as  much  by  win- 
ter (Jrouth  as  by  summer  drouth. 


38  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

This  is  certain — that  since  summer  and  winter  drouth,  that  is, 
rapid  evaporation  due  to  continuous  dry  winds,  is  the  bane  of 
the  farmer  on  the  plains,  rationally  disposed  timber  belts  will 
do  much  to  increase  available  water  supply  by  reducing  evap- 
oration. 

Evaporation,  of  course,  goes  on  much  less  rapidly  within 
than  without  the  forest.  How  great  this  difference  is  in  this 
section  we  have  no  exact  figures  to  tell,  but  it  is  certain  that 
it  is  much  more  than  in  Bavaria,  where  the  following  result 
was  obtained:  In  an  experiment  which  was  carried  on  to 
determine  the  amount  evaporated  from  April  to  October  it  was 
found  that  from  a  certain  area  without  the  forest  40.8  centi- 
meters were  evaporated,  within  pine  wood  15.9  centimeters  and 
within  deciduous  woods  6.2  centimeters.  This  shows  that  the 
evaporation  was  six  and  one-half  times  as  great  in  the  open 
field  as  in  deciduous  woods. 

Transpiration.  Another  factor  by  which  forests  dissipate 
water  supplies  and  which  has  been  referred  to  (page  17)  is 
transpiration.  The  quantity  of  water  so  used  is  as  variable  as 
the  amount  of  precipitation,  and  in  fact  within  certain  limits 
depends  largely  upon  it;  that  is  to  say,  a  plant  will  transpire 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  which  is  at  its  disposal. 
Transpiration  is  also  dependent  on  the  stage  of  development  of 
the  plant,  on  the  nature  of  its  leaves  and  amount  of  foliage,  on 
temperature,  humidity  and  circulation  of  the  air,  on  intensity 
of  the  sunlight,  and  on  temperature  and  structure  of  the  soil 
and  on  other  meteorological  conditions.  Rain  and  dew  reduce 
transpiration;  wind  increases  it. 

The  amount  of  transpiration  depends  considerably  upon  the 
thickness  of  the  leaves;  therefore  the  surface  of  the  foliage  is 
not  a  reliable  measure,  but  should  be  compared  with  the  weight. 

In  some  European  experiments  carried  on  during  the  period 
of  vegetation,  the  amount  of  water  transpired  by  the  different 
species  per  pound  of  dry  matter  in  the  leaves  was  as  follows: 


TRANSPIRATION.  39 

Pounds   of  Water. 

Birch    and    Linden 600  to  700 

Ash 500  to  600 

Beech   .>,.-.*......; 450  to  500 

Maple    -. 400  to  450 

Oak 200  to  300 

Spruce   and   Scotch    Pine 50  to     70 

Fir 30  to     40 

Black    Pine    30  to     40 

Average,    deciduous    trees 470 

Average,    evergreen   trees , .  43 

This  shows  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  amounts  of 
water  transpired  from  deciduous  trees  and  evergreen  trees.  In 
this  case  the  deciduous  trees  transpired  about  eleven  times  as 
much  as  the  evergreens. 

"The  variability  of  transpiration  from  day  to  day  is  of  wide 
range;  a  birch  standing  in  the  open  and  found  to  have  200,000 
leaves  was  calculated  to  have  transpired  on  hot  summer  days 
700  to  900  pounds,  while  on  other  days  its  exhalations  were  prob- 
ably not  more  than  18  to  20  pounds. 

But  while  trees  transpire  large  amounts  of  water,  our  agri- 
cultural crops  and  other  low  vegetation  transpire  much  larger 
amounts  to  the  same  areas.  A  small  factor  in  the  dissipation 
of  water  supplies  is  the  amount  of  water  that  is  retained  in  the 
plant  itself.  As  before  mentioned  this  may  amount  annually 
to  about  5,000  pounds  per  acre.  The  water  in  fresh  cut  woods 
forms  a  large  part  of  their  weight.  In  hard  woods,  such  as  Ash, 
Oak,  Elm  and  Birch,  it  forms  38  to  45  per  cent,  and  in  soft 
woods  45  to  55  per  cent  or  more. 

ELEMENTS  OF  CONSERVATION  OF  WATER  SUPPLIES. 
In  discussing  the  elements  of  dissipation  as  to  the  degree  of 
their  effect  under  forest  cover  as  compared  with  the  same  ele- 
ments at  work  in  the  open  field,  we  have  seen  that  the  shade, 
the  low  temperature,  the  relative  humidity,  the  absence  of  strong 
air  currents  and  the  protective  and  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  forest  floor  are  all  factors  in  the  conservation  of  the  water 
supplies.  We  have  also  seen  that  the  quantity  of  water  lost  by 
evaporation,  the  greatest  source  of  dissipation,  may  be  more 


40  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

than  six  times  as  great  in  the  open  as  in  the  forest.  The  only 
other  conservative  effect  of  forests  on  water  supplies  is  their 
effect  in  retarding  the  melting  of  the  snows.  This  acts  as  an 
important  function  in  the  prevention  ot  freshets  by  giving  the 
snow  a  longer  time  to  melt,  so  that  the  snow  water  has  a  bet- 
ter chance  to  sink  into  the  ground.  It  is  of  course  more  evi- 
dent in  evergreen  than  in  deciduous  forests.  On  the  grounds 
of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  where  the  woodland  con- 
sists of  a  low  growth  of  Oak,  the  snow  is  often  retained  in  the 
woods  a  week  longer  than  in  the  open.  This  often  allows  the 
snow  water  from  the  fields  to  almost  wholly  run  off  before  it 
has  begun  to  flow  from  the  woods.  Then  again  the  daily  flow 
of  snow  water  from  the  woods  is  much  shorter  than  from  the 
open  fields  during  spring  weather,  when  we  have  warm  days 
and  cold  nights,  for  it  begins  later  in  the  morning  and  stops 
earlier  in  the  afternoon.  Under  the  dense  shade  and  mulch  of 
the  cedar  swamps  of  northern  Minnesota  the  snow  and  ice 
often  remain  until  the  beginning  of  summer.  The  Indians  claim 
there  has  never  been  a  time  when  they  could  not  find  ice  for 
their  sick  in  the  cedar  swamps  of  that  section.  This  retarding 
effect  on  the  melting  of  snows  in  the  spring  and  in  preventing 
the  run-off  is  of  far  greater  importance  in  the  case  of  streams 
that  rise  in  the  high  mountains  than  in  Minnesota  and  Wiscon- 
sin, where  the  land  is  more  nearly  level.  Where  streams  have 
their  sources  in  mountains,  as  those  of  Colorado  and  other 
Rocky  Mountain  States,  the  cutting  away  of  the  forests  causes 
a  heavy  flow  of  water  early  in  the  spring  and  little  water  in  the 
summer,  when  it  is  most  needed  for  irrigation  purposes.  This 
has  become  so  evident  that  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Den- 
ver, Colorado,  recently  petitioned  the  President  of  the  United 
States  to  reserve  such  land,  in  forests  and  administer  it  at  public 
expense,  and  in  their  petition  used  in  part  the  following  lan- 
guage: 

"The  streams  upon  which  the  irrigation  system  of  Colorado 
depends  are  fed  by  the  springs,  rivulets  and  melting  snows  of 
the  mountains,  which  in  turn  are  nourished  and  protected  by 
the  native  forests.  Where  the  forests  have  been  destroyed  and 
the  mountain  slopes  laid  bare  most  unfavorable  conditions  pre- 
vail. The  springs  and  the  rivulets  have  disappeared,  the  winter 
snow  melts  prematurely,  and  the  flow  of  the  streams,  formerly 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  WATER.  41 

equable  and  continuous,  has  become  fitful  and  uncertain. 
Floods  and  drouth  alternating  clearly  indicate  that  the  natural 
physical  conditions  of  the  region  have  been  unduly  disturbed. 
In  winter  and  early  spring,  when  heavy  masses  of  snow  have 
been  accumulated  on  treeless  precipitous  slopes,  snow  and  land 
slides  frequently  occur  with  disastrous  result  to  life  and  prop- 
erty." 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  WATER. 

The  distribution  or  "run-off"  of  the  water  is  often  a  more 
important  factor  in  its  economy  than  the  quantity  available. 
It  is  influenced  by  the  surface  conditions  of  the  soil  cover,  by 
the  porosity  and  structure  of  the  soil  and  by  the  slope.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  run-off,  the  surface  run-off  and  the  under- 
ground run-off  or  percolation.  The  former  is  likely  to  do 
injury  by  eroding  the  soil,  while  the  latter  is  generally  beneficial 
to  vegetation  in  the  formation  of  springs  and  in  raising  the 
water  level  in  the  soil.  It  is  evident  that  the  less  surface  drain- 
age and  the  more  underground  drainage  the  greater  the  spring- 
water  supply  and  vice  versa.  We  are,  therefore,  interested  in 
determining  the  factors  that  increase  underground  drainage  and 
reduce  the  surface  flow. 

It  is  plain  that  whatever  retards  the  flow  of  water  over  the 
land  aids  it  in  sinking  into  the  soil.  We  find  this  exemplified 
in  swamps,  where  the  soft,  rough  ground  retards  the  surface 
flow,  and  in  forests,  where  the  foliage  checks  the  water  in  its 
descent  to  the  ground  and  the  forest  floor  retards  the  surface 
run-off.  Theoretically  such  a  cover  should  promote  the  flow 
of  springs  and  maintain  the  height  of  water  in  wells,  and  in 
practice  we  find  that  this  is  often  the  case.  In  some  cases 
springs  had  entirely  disappeared  after  the  clearing  of  near-by 
forests,  but  have  commenced  their  regular  flow  since  the  trees 
have  been  allowed  to  grow  again.  Springs  in  turn  influence 
the  flow  of  water  in  rivers,  so  that  forests  about  the  headwaters 
of  streams  often  have  a  most  potent  effect  in  maintaining  their 
flow.  There  is  in  fact  no  influence  of  the  forest  that  is  of 
greater  importance  in  the  distribution  of  water  supplies  than 
its  effect  in  retarding  the  run-off,  even  though  its  effect  in  pre- 
venting evaporation  is  very  important. 


42  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


FOREST  INFLUENCES  ON  WIND   AND  HAIL    STORMS. 

We  have  seen  that  the  wind-breaking  power  of  the  forest  is 
a  very  important  factor  in  retarding  evaporation,  and  in  prevent- 
ing the  drifting  of  sandy  soil  and  snow.  In  the  forest  the  air 
may  be  rather  still  while  in  the  open  a  piercing  gale  may  be 
blowing;  in  consequence  there  are  no  blizzards  in  a  wooded 
country.  Tornadoes  of  great  force  have  occasionally  broken 
down  wide  areas  of  timber  in  this  section,  but  instances  are  very 
rare  in  which  they  have  continued  for  long  distances  through 
forests,  and  it  is  probably  true  that  forests  have  a  tendency  to 
prevent  their  formation  and  perhaps  entirely  break  up  those  of 
lesser  violence.  M.  Becquerel  is  said  to  have  found  by  careful 
study  that  in  some  parts  of  central  France  hail  storms  show  a 
marked  disinclination  to  enter  forests,  and  yet  occasionally  they 
do  so,  but  nothing  of  this  sort  has  been  noticed  here. 

FOREST  INFLUENCES  ON  FOGS  AND  CLOUDS. 

The  influence  of  forests  on  fogs  and  clouds  has  frequently 
been  mentioned.  The  fog  seems  to  linger  in  the  woods  after 
it  has  cleared  off  elsewhere.  Trees  act  also  as  condensers  and 
gatherers  of  dew,  hoar-frost  and  ice;  the  latter  phenomenon  is 
especially  remarkable  in  the  so-called  ice  storms,  where  the 
accumulation  of  ice  on  the  trees  is  so  great  as  to  break  them 
down.  The  load  of  ice  on  some  large  trees  is  probably  a  ton 
or  more.  In  this  case  the  tree  acts  simply  as  an  inorganic  body. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  LAND  ON  WHICH  TREES  GROW. 

As  has  been  shown,  trees  add  large  amounts  of  soluble  min- 
eral matters  to  the  soil  through  the  fall  and  decay  of  their 
leaves.  In  the  same  way  they  add  large  amounts  of  humus  to 
the  land,  which  helps  to  keep  the  soil  porous  and  yet  makes  it 
more  retentive  of  moisture  and  gases.  The  roots  of  trees  often 
penetrate  deep  into  the  soil  and  bring  up  plant  food  that  would 
not  be  reached  by  agricultural  crops.  A  part  of  this  is  returned 
to  the  surface  soil  by  the  yearly  fall  of  the  leaves  and  in  the 
twigs  and  branches  that  are  left  on  the  ground  when  the  tree 
is  cut  down.  The  roots  deepen  the  soil,  and  by  their  decay  fur- 
nish plant  food  to  the  soil  and  leave  channels  through  which 


WHY  THE  PRAIRIES  ARE  TREELESS.  43 

water  and  air  may  enter  the  subsoil.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  after  a  sandy  soil  in  New  England  is  so  exhausted  that  it 
will  produce  nothing  but  red  mosses  it  may  be  renewed  to  its 
pristine  vigor  and  productiveness  by  the  growth  of  trees  on  it 
for  thirty  years. 

WHY  THE  PRAIRIES  ARE  TREELESS. 

This  question  has  been  answered  in  many  ways,  but  often,  it 
would  seem,  by  persons  not  acquainted  with  the  principles  of 
forestry.  It  seems  that  the  best  way  of  getting  a  clear  under- 
standing of  this  matter  is  to  consider  two  extremes  of  tree 
growth.  Eastern  Minnesota  has  a  rainfall  of  perhaps  26  to  35 
inches  and  a  comparatively  moist  air,  and  at  least  during  a  part 
of  the  year  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  hardier  kinds 
of  trees.  Here  we  find  the  White  Pine,  Basswood,  Oak,  Elm, 
Poplar  and  other  trees  attaining  large  size.  Western  Dakota 
has  a  very  light  rainfall,  mostly  in  the  spring,  and  a  very  high 
rate  of  evaporation.  Trees  can  scarcely  be  made  to  grow  in 
this  section  without  irrigation,  and  the  low  vegetation,  the 
grasses,  which  require  a  less  amount  of  water,  replace  the  trees. 
It  is  evident  that  between  locations  having  such  extremes  of 
tree  growth  there  must  be  a  place  where  the  trees  give  way  to 
the  lower  forms  of  vegetation.  Such  a  meridianal  zone  is  found 
in  central  Minnesota,  and  though  it  has  probably  changed  with 
fluctuating  rainfall  its  general  location  has  remained  practically 
the  same  for  many  years.  The  location  of  this  zone  was  proba- 
bly gradually  driven  eastward,  for  many  years  previous  to  set- 
tlement, by  the  practice  of  the  Indians  of  burning  over  prairies 
in  order  to  furnish  good  pasturage  for  the  buffalo.  Of  late 
years,  since  the  prairie  fires  have  been  largely  prevented,  the  tree 
line  has  moved  westward  and  gained  a  little  on  the  prairies. 
When  left  to  itself  the  western  limit  of  this  tree  zone  would  not 
make  very  great  progress  westward,  but  with  man's  assistance 
in  cultivation  and  various  other  ways  it  may  be  extended  much 
farther  towards  the  arid  regions  than  if  left  to  natural  conditions. 
So  we  find  that,  while  great  sections  of  the  interior  of  this  coun- 
try are  treeless  on  account  of  lack  of  water,  trees  planted  on 
them  and  properly  cared  for  may  often  grow  thriftily.  But  trees 
planted  on  our  prairies  always  require  more  care  to  make  them 


44  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

do  well  than  those  planted  in  sections  of  greater  rainfall,  and 
we  should  not  expect  them  to  grow  as  large  as  in  the  timbered 
sections  without  irrigation. 

RAINFALL  AND  HEIGHT  OF  WATER   TABLE    IN  THE  LAND. 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  argued  by  many  friends  of  tree  plant- 
ing that  it  was  practicable  by  the  planting  of  trees  to  increase 
the  rainfall  and  prevent  evaporation  in  the  great  continental 
plain  sufficiently  to  materially  change  the  climate.  The  large 
rainfall  and  the  good  crops  produced  for  a  number  of  years  in 
the  drier  portions  of  this  area  after  considerable  planting  had 
been  done  seemed  to  endorse  all  that  the  most  enthusiastic  of 
tree  planters  claimed.  But  it  must  be  very  evident  to  any  care- 
ful student  of  the  subject  that  such  small  plantings  as  were  made, 
even  had  they  been  maintained,  could  scarcely  have  had  any 
appreciable  effect  on  the  general  climate  of  so  vast  a  territory.  It 
is  very  evident,  too,  from  a  study  of  the  annual  rainfall,  that  it 
has  fluctuated  greatly  in  this  section,  and  that  we  have  perhaps 
not  recorded  the  least  or  the  greatest  amount  for  any  one  year. 

There  are  some  facts  that  seem  to  show  plainly  that  there 
must  have  been  a  time  when  the  water  level  of  our  lakes  was 
much  lower  than  it  is  now  or  than  it  was  during  the  very  dry 
years  from  1890  to  1895,  when  the  rainfall  in  most  cases  pro- 
duced no  flow  in  the  streams.  There  is  a  lake  near  Devils  Lake, 
N.  D.,  where  in  1890  the  old  overland  trail  leading  west  termi- 
nated abruptly  on  one  side  of  the  lake  and  was  taken  up  again 
in  the  continuation  of  its  direction  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
trail  is  clear  and  distinct,  showing  it  to  have  been  of  compara- 
tively recent  use.  It  is  a  reasonable  inference  that  when  this 
trail  was  in  use  this  lake  was  dry.  There  are  places  near  the 
shores  of  Devils  Lake  where  upright  stumps  are  standing  sub- 
merged in  water.  The  same  phenomenon  has  been  noticed  in 
other  places.  These  are  almost  certain  indications  of  a  time 
or  times  when  the  beds  of  these  lakes,  where  the  stumps  are, 
were  out  of  water  or  very  nearly  so  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  for  the  trees  to  grow.  The  climate  must  have  been  very 
dry,  and  the  great  continental  plain,  or  at  least  portions  of  it, 
must  have  bordered  pretty  closely  upon  a  desert,  and  the  "Great 
American  Desert"  may  have  been  a  reality.  It  would  seem,  then, 


HOT  WINDS.  45 

that  the  knowledge  we  are  gaining  of  the  unknown  past,  as  well 
as  the  records  of  more  recent  years,  point  to  the  recurrence  of 
great  fluctuations  in  the  annual  rainfall  of  this  section,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  such  changes  follow  series  of  years,  and  that 
the  recedence  of  our  lakes  may  be  followed  by  periods  of  higher 
water. 

But  the  influence  of  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  on  water  sup- 
plies must  be  taken  into  account  in  this  connection,  for  it  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  man  has  changed  the  conditions  of  the 
soil  sufficiently  to  greatly  influence  the  run-off.  The  breaking 
up  of  large  areas  of  prairie  sod,  with  its  low  rate  of  evaporation, 
and  the  planting  of  such  land  to  agricultural  crops  with  a  rela- 
tively high  rate  of  evaporation,  has  resulted  in  a  loss  of  soil 
water.  Then  the  cultivated  soil  takes  up  more  water  than  the 
sod-bound  prairie  slopes,  so  that  it  does  not  have  so  good  an 
opportunity  to  collect  in  lakes  and  swamps,  which  often  supplied 
the  water  of  wells.  And  further,  the  straightening  and  cleaning 
out  of  water  courses,  and  the  draining  of  swamps  in  the  effort 
to  get  arable  land,  has  had  a  similar  effect  on  subsoil  water  sup- 
plies. 

HOT  WINDS. 

The  hot  winds  of  the  plains  which  so  often  cause  serious 
injury  to  farm  crops  in  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  the  Dakotas  have 
been  ascribed  to  the  arid  "staked"  plains,  whence,  taking  a  north- 
easterly direction,  they  draw  all  the  moisture  from  the  vegeta- 
tion with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The  view  has  also  been 
presented  that  they  have  their  origin  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
ascend  the  Rocky  Mountains,  lose  their  moisture  and  descend 
on  the  eastern  slopes.  But  all  theories  that  ascribe  their  origin 
to  a  distant  source  are  inadequate  to  explain  their  phenomena. 
For  instance,  all  who  are  acquainted  with  these  winds  know 
that  they  blow  only  during  very  dry  weather,  when  the  earth  is 
heated  very  hot,  that  a  good  rain  speedily  brings  them  to  an 
end,  and  that  they  blow  only  during  the  daytime,  commencing 
about  9  A.  M.  and  continuing  until  sundown.  This  daily  move- 
ment is  often  constant  for  several  weeks,  showing  that  there  is 
evidently  some  connection  between  them  and  the  course  of  the 
sun.  For  these  reasons  and  others  which  would  require  too 


46  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

much  space  to  give  here,  the  best  authorities  unite  in  attributing 
them  to  local  origin. 

Mr.  George  C.  Curtiss  describes  the  process  of  the  produc- 
tion of  a  typical  hot  wind  as  follows:  "The  necessary  condi- 
tions are  those  of  the  'warm  wave,'  namely,  a  diminishing  pres- 
sure to  the  northward,  producing  southerly  winds  which  initially 
elevate  the  temperature  above  the  normal.  A  cloudless  sky 
favors  an  intense  insolation,  as  a  result  of  which  the  dry  ground 
is  soon  raised  to  an  extreme  temperature,  and  the  air  is  heated 
from  it  by  radiation,  reflection  and  conduction.  The  resulting 
diminution  of  density  due  to  the  rise  of  temperature  furnishes 
impetus  to  previously  existing  horizontal  ^currents,  and  by  10 
o'clock  in 'the  morning  the  hot  wind  is  fully  developed.  Hun- 
dreds of  miles  of  hot  dry  earth  contribute  to  maintain  and  feed 
the  current,  and,  gathering  strength  as  the  sun  mounts  higher, 
the  hot  wind  sweeps  over  the  defenseless  prairie.  Neither  hills 
nor  forests  rise  in  its  path  to  break  its  power  or  dispute  its  sway, 
and,  with  no  enemy  save  the  tardy  raincloud,  the  fetid  blast  sucks 
out  the  life-sap  of  the  growing  grain.  It  will  be  readily  seen 
then  that  each  of  the  states,  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  North  and 
South  Dakota,  develops  its  own  hot  winds  and  cannot  charge 
them  to  the  account  of  its  neighbors." 

The  local  origin  of  these  winds  at  once  suggests  the  desira- 
bility of  frequent  windbreaks  on  the  prairie  farms,  as  offering 
the  most  practical  way  of  breaking  them  up.  Irrigation  of 
large  areas  will  also  undoubtedly  do  much  to  prevent  them. 


CHAPTER  IV, 

TREE  PLANTING  ON  PRAIRIES. 

The  subject  of  tree  planting  in  this  section  naturally  divides 
itself  under  the  two  heads  of  prairie  planting  and  forest  planting. 
The  former  relates  to  the  limited  planting  of  trees  on  our  prairies 
for  ornament,  protection  and  use.  and  the  latter  to  the  care  and 
management  of  timber  lands  and  the  planting  of  trees  for  profit 
from  their  growth.  Our  people  are  very  generally  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  prairie  planting  for  protection  and  orna- 
ment, but  are  too  prone  to  regard  the  care  and  management  of 
timber  lands  for  the  production  of  timber  crops  as  a  matter  of 
little  concern  and  very  impracticable.  (The  subject  of  the  regen- 
eration of  forests  is  treated  in  the  chapter  on  Forest  Planting  and 
Treatment.) 

PRAIRIE  PLANTING. 

Whatever  the  ulterior  object  of  prairie  planting,  the  subject  of 
protection  to  the  buildings,  their  occupants  and  the  cattle  in  the 
field  should  always  be  first  considered.  Our  crops  in  this  sec- 
tion are  most  liable  to  injury  from  the  southwest  wind  of  sum- 
mer, which  dries  them  out,  and  the  northwest  wind  of  winter, 
which  blows  the  snow  from  the  land,  causing  it  to  lose  the  snow 
water.  It  also  causes  a  loss  of  evaporation,  which  goes  on  even 
in  winter  from  the  bare  ground,  and  from  exposed  crops,  causing 
them  to  winter-kill.  The  same  winds  are  also  the  most  uncom- 
fortable to  the  occupants  of  farm  buildings,  and  are  most  likely  to 
cause  dust  storms,  which  should  be  especially  guarded  against. 

Windbreak  is  a  general  name  given  to  anything  that  Rfives 
protection  from  wind.  On  the  prairies  it  is  often  applied  to  a 
single  row  of  trees  planted  for  protection. 

Shelterbelt  is  a  term  more  often  used  to  signify  several  or 
a  large  number  of  rows  of  trees,  but  the  term  is  often  used  inter- 
changeably with  windbreak. 

Grove  is  a  term  that  refers  to  comparatively  large  bodies 
of  trees  which  may  be  planted  for  shelter,  fuel  or  other  purposes. 


48  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Protection  to  Buildings  may  be  furnished  by  a  few  rows  or 
a  grove  of  trees.  It  is  generally  best  to  locate  the  buildings  in 
a  grove,  or  grow  one  up  around  them,  so  that  protection  may  be 
afforded  from  every  quarter  to  the  best  advantage.  The  garden 
should  also  be  included  in  the  grove  or  shelterbelt  about  the 
buildings. 

Distance  of  the  Trees  from  the  Buildings  and  Roadways. 

Of  whatever  the  protection  consists,  it  should  not  be  close  to  the 
buildings  or  to  any  paths  which  are  used  in  winter,  for  the  snow 
drifts  which  always  form  to  the  leeward  of  such  protection  may 
become  a  great  nuisance  under  such  circumstances  during  win- 
ters of  great  snowfall.  The  windbreak  had  better  be  placed 
about  one  hundred  feet  back  from  the  buildings,  and  if  shade  is 
wanted  it  can  be  obtained  from  scattered  trees  near  the  buildings, 
which  will  not  drift  the  snow.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the 
planting  of  trees  on  the  north  side  of  a  roadway.  The  drifts  of 
snow  which  would  be  formed  to  the  leeward  of  a  windbreak  so 
planted  would  take  longer  to  thaw  in  the  spring,  and  would  keep 
the  road  muddy  and  in  poor  condition  after  those  that  were  not 
protected  had  become  dry  and  firm.  A  row  of  trees  is  very  ap- 
propriate by  the  side  of  a  street  or  roadway  and  affords  a  pleas- 
ant shade,  and  if  not  planted  too  closely  together  will  not  drift 
the  snow  sufficiently  to  be  an  objection. 

Protection  to  Crops  by  Windbreaks.  The  objection  to 
windbreaks  close  to  driveways  may  also  be  made  against  their 
use  in  fields,  for  they  often  keep  the  land  for  a  short  distance  to 
leeward  wet  and  in  unfit  condition  to  work  after  the  rest  of  the 
field  has  become  dry.  This  is  an  objection  where  spring  grains 
are  grown,  but  to  winter  grains  it  is  an  advantage.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  protection  of  a  windbreak  may  give  a  much  need- 
ed or  beneficial  covering  of  snow  to  crops  on  the  leeward  side. 
The  protection  from  dust  storms  and  drying  winds  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  important  question  is  how  to  get  the  ad- 
vantages without  the  disadvantages.  In  many  sections  the  dis- 
advantage of  having  the  snow  linger  on  the  field  near  the  wind- 
break may  be  overcome  by  leaving  a  strip  of  land  near  it  in 
permanent  meadow,  or  use  it  for  a  rotation  that  does  not  take 
in  crops  that  require  very  early  planting.  But  even  with  spring- 
planted  grains  it  is  more  than  probable  that  windbreaks  properly 


49 

planted  are  an  advantage  when  their  benefits  are  considered 
for  a  series  of  years.  It  ofttimes  happens  that  low  windbreaks 
are  more  beneficial  than  high  windbreaks  in  holding  the  snow 
on  the  land,  for  the  high  windbreaks  often  form  a  great  drift 
that  may  remain  late  in  the  spring,  while  the  low  windbreak 
nowhere  forms  a  large  drift,  but  spreads  the  snow  for  long  dis- 
tances. Professor  Budd  says  that  in  parts  of  the  great  conti- 
nental plain  of  Russia,  where  the  climatic  changes  are  much  the 
same  as  in  this  section,  the  use  of  low  windbreaks  in  wheat 
fields  is  very  common. 

Height  of  Windbreak.  From  the  preceding  paragraph  it 
will  be  seen  that  low  windbreaks  may  often  serve  a  better  .pur- 
pose than  high  Ones  in  protecting  fields.  Exactly  what  is  meant 
by  a  low  windbreak  may  be  an  open  question,  but  for  the  pur- 
poses of  this  discussion  a  low  windbreak  may  be  considered  one 
under  twenty  feet  in  height.  In  Russia  and  at  the  experiment 
station  at  Indian  Head,  Manitoba,  windbreaks  of  Artemisia 
tobolksiana,  which  seldom  grows  more  than  eight  feet  high, 
are  often  used.  About  farm  buildings  windbreaks  cannot  be 
too  high,  and  for  this  purpose  the  largest,  longest-lived  trees 
should  be  used. 

Kinds  of  Trees  for  a  Windbreak.  In  too  many  instances 
too  many  tree  planters  on  the  prairies  have  put  out  exclusively 
quick-growing,  short-lived  trees,  such  as  the  Cottonwood  and 
Lombardy  Poplar,  and  after  fifteen  or  twenty  years  they  have 
found  their  trees  dying  and  nothing  coming  on  to  take  their 
places.  The  quick-growing  kinds  are  very  desirable  as  a  pro- 
tection for  the  near  future,  but  they  are  often  short  lived  and 
should  never  be  planted  alone.  Among  them  should  be  planted 
a  sufficient  number  of  long-lived  and  perhaps  slower-growing 
kinds,  to  afford  protection  in  later  years,  when  the  short-lived 
kinds  have  died  out.  The  soil  and  location  have  much  to  do 
in  determining  the  longevity  of  varieties;  for  instance,  the  Cot- 
tonwood and  Lombardy  Poplar  are  generally  short-lived  trees 
when  planted  in  this  section,  but  when  planted  in  locations 
where  their  roots  reach  the  permanent  water  level  their  period 
of  life  may  be  considerably  lengthened,  and  they  may  then  even 
be  regarded  as  long-lived  trees. 

In  starting  a  grove  or  windbreak  on  the  prairie  in  this  sec- 
tion, there  is  probably  no  better  tree  to  begin  with  than  the 


&0  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY/ 

White  Willow.  It  is  quick-growing,  rather  long-lived  in  most 
situations,  makes  good  summer  fuel  and  renews  itself  very  rap- 
idly from  the  stump.  The  Green  Ash  would  probably  rank  next 


Figure  3.  A  young  White  Willow  windbreak  on  dry  prairie  at  Coteau 
Farm.  Grown  entirely  by  mulching  after  being  well  started. 

as  a  pioneer  tree.  The  White  Elm  is  also  very  valuable  for 
this  purpose,  but  generally  should  follow  the  White  Willow. 
The  Cottonwood  may  sometimes,  though  very  seldom,  be  the 
best  to  use,  but  on  average  prairie  land  it  would  be  better  if 
the  White  Willow  or  Green  Ash  were  always  planted  instead. 

After  a  good  windbreak  has  been  secured  it  is  safe  to  plant 
out  the  hardy  coniferous  evergreens  and  such  trees  as  the 
Mountain  Ash,  European  White  Birch  and  other  similar  orna- 
mental trees.  Wind  protection  is  beneficial  to  all  trees  and 
necessary  for  many  of  our  best  ornamental  kinds  and  often 
makes  the  difference  between  success  and  failure  in  growing 
them. 

Distance  Apart.  In  the  planting  of  groves  we  should  aim 
to  get  the  land  shaded  by  the  trees  as  soon  as  practicable,  and  to 
keep  it  covered  with  a  canopy  of  leaves.  The  United  States 
government  recommended  the  planting  of  trees  four  feet  apart 
each  way,  with  the  idea  that  when  so  planted  they  would  quickly 
shade  the  ground  and  consequently  keep  out  grass  and  retard 
evaporation.  Some  successful  plantings  have  been  made  on 
this  plan,  but  when  planted  so  closely  together  the  branches 
grow  into  the  rows  after  a  few  years  and  cultivation  must  be 
discontinued.  In  this  section,  where  we  have  so  much  very 


DISTANCE  APART.  51 

bright  sunshiny  -weather  that  grass  can  grow  under  foliage  that 
would  kill  it  out  in  a  more  humid  climate,  we  find  that  trees 
planted  four  feet  apart  each  way  seldom  afford  sufficient  shade 
to  kill  the  grass  under  them  for  many  years.  This  is  especially 
true  of  such  trees,  as  the  Cottonwood,  Lombardy  Poplar  and 
White  Elm  when  planted  alone,  as  they  have  open  foliage  that 
does  not  furnish  a  dense  shade.  Among  tree  planters  who  have 
had  a  large  experience  in  prairie  planting  there  has  been  a 
tendency  of  late  years  to  plant  two  feet  apart  in  rows  eight  feet 
apart,  and  some  of  our  most  successful  planters  prefer  even 
more  room  than  this  between  the  rows.  When  plantings  are 
made  2x8  feet  the  same  number  of  trees  are  required  for  an  acre 
as  when  planted  4x4*  feet,  but  the  former  distance  has  the  advan- 
tage over  the  latter  in  that  the  space  between  the  rows  can  be 
cultivated  for  perhaps  ten  years  or  more,  by  which  time  most 
trees  will  have  formed  a  dense  shade  and  be  able  to  take  care 
of  themselves.  Where  a  much  greater  distance  than  eight  feet 
is  allowed  between  the  rows  we  generally  fail  to  get  forest  con- 
ditions for  many  years,  and  to  that  extent  fall  short  of  an  impor- 
tant requisite  in  prairie  planting.  The  distances  given  here 
might  need  to  be  modified  to  suit  different  varieties  and  local 
climatic  conditions. 

Clear  Plantings.  Most  of  the  plantings  on  our  prairies 
consist  wholly  of  one  kind.  In  some  cases  good  results  are  thus 
obtained,  but  they  are  seldom  as  satisfactory  as  plantings  made 
up  of  several  different  kinds.  One  of  the  greatest  drawbacks 
to  plantings  made  up  entirely  of  one  kind  is  the  fact  that  drouth, 
insects  or  fungous  disease  may  destroy  the  whole  planting  at 
one  time,  while  in  a  judiciously  mixed  planting  this  could  hardly 
occur. 

Mixed  Plantings,  when  properly  made,  have  the  following 
advantages:  (i)  They  make  possible  the  growing  of  species 
that  form  a  protection  in  the  least  possible  time,  and  still  have 
coming  on  in  the  same  grove  longer-lived  and  better  kinds  to 
take  their  places.  (2)  Many  kinds  that  are  somewhat  tender 
are  helped  very  much  by  being  grown  among  the  hardier  kinds 
until  well  established.  In  this  case  the  protecting  trees  are 
called  nurse  trees.  The  Scotch  Pine  is  seldom  a  success  when 
standing  alone  on  our  Western  prairies,  but  when  partially  pro- 
tected by  some  deciduous  tree  it  stands  very  well.  The  same 


52 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


is  generally  true  of  Hard  Maple  in  this  section  and  of  Catalpa 
and  Black  Walnut  in  Southern  Minnesota.  (3)  In  good  mixed 
plantings  the  ground  is  more  likely  to  be  properly  shaded  and 
protected  from  winds  than  it  would  be  in  clear  plantings  of  such 
thinly-leafed  species  as  the  Cottonwood  or  White  Elm,  which 
do  well  and  afford  good  shade  when  mixed  with  Green  Ash 


Figure  4.  A  good  tree  claim.  Planted  by  Mr.  Gardner,  of  Lyons 
county.  Located  on  high  prairie.  Soil  very  dry.  Has  planted  about  30 
acres  in  trees. 

or  Boxelder.  (4)  Mixed  plantings  are  most  interesting  and 
ornamental.  (5)  They  attract  more  birds  by  their  better  pro- 
tection and  the  greater  variety  of  food  offered.  (6)  While  the 
chance  of  injury  to  some  of  the  species  by  climatic  changes,  dis- 
eases and  insects  is  increased,  the  possibility  of  total  loss  from 
any  or  all  of  these  causes  is  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

The  Most  Important  Constituent  of  a  Prairie  Grove 
of  mixed  trees  in  this  section  should  be  some  well-known  dura- 
ble kind,  as  the  Elm,  Ash  or  Boxelder,  of  which  there  should 
be  a  sufficient  number  to  completely  shade  the  ground  when  the 
others  are  gone.  On  the  outside,  especially  on  the  north  and 
west,  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  put  at  least  a  few  rows  of  White 


TREES  FOR  MIXED   PLANTINGS.  53 

Willow  or  possibly  Cottonwood  to  furnish  a  quick  protection. 
The  rest  of  the  grove  should  consist  of  hardy  sorts,  and  may 
include  some  of  the  evergreens  and  such  fruit-bearing  trees  or 
shrubs  as  the  Wild  Plum,  Wild  Black  Cherry,  Russian  Mul- 
berry and  Juneberry.  These  latter  furnish  food  for  the  birds 
and  may  often  be  a  help  in  supplying  the  home  table.  The 
plan  of  planting  with  a  view  of  providing  some  food  for  birds 
is  not  mere  sentiment,  for  they  protect  our  gardens  from  many 
insects,  and  if  we  furnish  an  abundance  of  Russian  Mulberry 
they  will  not  trespass  much  on  our  strawberries  or  raspberries. 
It  is  the  author's  opinion  that  in  all  our  prairie  planting  we 
should  pay  more  attention  to  using  our  native  fruits  and  Rus- 
sian Mulberry  as  plants  of  secondary  importance. 

I,ist  of  Trees  for  Mixed  Plantings.  Some  suggestions 
may  be  found  in  the  following  lists,  but  several  other  trees  might 
often  be  used  to  give  a  variety  or  a  tasteful  display. 

For  Porous  Moist  Soils  in  Southern  Minnesota.  White 
Elm,  Black  Walnut,  Green  Ash  and  Hard  Maple  in  equal  quan- 
tities with  a  scattering  of  the  fruit  plants.  The  Hackberry  may 
wholly  or  in  part  take  the  place  of  the  White  Elm,  and  the  Box- 
elder  the  place  of  the  Green  Ash.  The  White  Willow,  Bass- 
wood  and  Soft  Maple  would  also  do  well  in  such  a  location. 
One  of  the  main  kinds  might  be  replaced  by  the  White  or  Nor- 
way Spruce,  Douglas  Fir  or  White  Pine.  In  fact  such  land  as 
this  will  grow  any  of  the  trees  adapted  to  this  section. 

For  High  Prairie  Soils  in  Southern  Minnesota.  Green 
Ash,  Boxelder,  White  Elm  and  White  Willow  in  equal  quanti- 
ties, with  scattering  of  fruit  plants.  Basswood  might  be  used  to 
a  limited  extent,  and  White  Spruce,  Red  Cedar,  Norway  Pine, 
White  Pine  or  Scotch  Pine  might  be  used  in  the  place  of  one 
of  the  main  kinds. 

For  Moist,  Porous  Prairie  Soils  in  Northern  Minnesota. 
White  Willow,  White  Elm,  Boxelder,  Basswood  and  Green 
Ash  in  equal  quantities,  with  a  ,  scattering  of  fruit  plants.  In 
some  localities  it  might  be  best  to  use  Cottonwood  on  the  out- 
side of  the  grove.  Hackberry  might  take  the  place  of  part  of 
the  White  Elm  and  White  Spruce,  Arborvitse,  Norway  Pine, 
Red  Cedar,  and  some  other  conifers  might  be  used  to  a  limited 
extent. 


54  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

For  High  Prairie  Soils  in  Northern  Minnesota.  Cot- 
tonwood,  White  Willow,  Boxelder  and  White  Elm  in  equal 
quantities,  with  a  scattering  of  fruit  plants.  White  Spruce  and 
native  Red  Cedar  might  also  be  used  in  a  small  way. 

Lists  of  trees  commonly  planted,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  hardiness:  Deciduous  trees — Green  Ash,  White  Willow. 
White  Elm,  Boxelder.  Basswood,  White  Poplar,  Hackberry, 
Soft  Maple,  Canoe  Birch  and  Yellow  Locust.  Evergreen  trees — 
Red  Cedar,  Dwarf  Mountain  Pine,  Jack  Pine,  Bull  Pine,  White 
Spruce,  Austrian  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Douglas  Spruce,  Norway 
Pine,  Norway  Spruce  and  White  Pine. 

Size  of  Trees.  In  the  case  of  deciduous  trees  it  is  gener- 
ally best  to  start  with  one  year  old  thrifty  seedlings,  although 
trees  two  years  old  may  often  be  used  to  advantage.  The  Oak, 
Walnut  and  similar  trees  are  better  started  from  seeds  where 
they  are  to  remain,  and  the  White  Willow  should  be  started  from 
cuttings.  Seedling  Elm,  Ash  and  Cottonwood  may  often  be 
pulled  from  some  river  bank  or  lake  shore,  or  bought  of  nursery 
men  at  a  very  low  figure,  or  they  may  be  raised  from  seeds. 
White  Willow  cuttings  can  generally  be  obtained  from  some 
neighbor  or  from  nurseries.  In  the  case  of  conifers,  transplanted 
seedlings  should  be  used.  Whatever  the  source  of  any  stock 
that  is  to  be  planted,  it  should  be  thrifty  and  vigorous  and  not 
weak  or  diseased. 

Methods  of  Planting.  The  methods  used  in  prairie  plant- 
ing are  much  the  same  as  for  transplanting  in  the  nursery.  In 
every  case  much  pains  should  be  taken  to  have  the  soil  in  the 
best  condition.  It  is  generally  better  to  delay  planting  for  a 
year  than  to  attempt  it  in  poorly  prepared  soil.  Tree  plantings 
have  been  made  on  our  prairies  by  sowing  tree  seeds  broadcast 
in  autumn  after  first  carefully  preparing  the  soil,  but  the  plan  is 
seldom  successful.  A  start  can,  however,  be  made  from  seeds  by 
planting  the  seeds  in  hills  either  alone  or  with  corn  or  beans. 
In  the  latter  case  the  tree  seedlings  often  do  very  well  and  do  not 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  crop.  The  seedlings  are  culti- 
vated in  the  spring  after  the  crop  is  removed  and  as  they  are  in 
rows  this  is  a  very  simple  matter.  The  common  and  generally 
most  successful  plan  with  trees  that  can  be  easily  transplanted 
is  to  start  with  seedlings  and  plant  in  rows.  The  simplest  and 
easiest  way  of  doing  this  is  to  furrow  one  way,  mark  out  the 


CULTIVATION  AND  THINNING.  55 

other  way  and  plant  the  trees  in  the  furrows  at  the  intersections. 
If  Black  Walnut  or  any  of  the  oaks  are  wanted  in  a  mixed  plant- 
ing it  is  generally  best  to  plant  the  other  species  first  and  put 
in  the  nuts  or  acorns  afterwards.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  plant 
seedlings  or  cuttings  to  fill  vacancies,  a  pointed  stick  or  spade 
may  be  used  to  make  the  hole.  Whatever  method  is  used  in 
planting,  it  is  most  important  that  the  soil  be  packed  firmly 
around  the  roots,  so  they  will  not  dry  out.  If  the  soil  is  dry  it 
cannot  be  made  too  solid  around  the  roots.  If  cuttings  are  used 
they  should  be  made  about  14  inches  long,  and  in  planting  be 
pushed  into  the  loose  soil  in  a  slanting  position,  leaving  only 
one  bud  above  the  surface,  as  recommended  in  the  planting  of 
cuttings. 

Cultivation  should  be  commenced  shortly  after  planting  and 
be  repeated  often  enough  to  keep  the  top  three  inches  of  soil 
loose,  so  as  to  form  a  dust  blanket  to  retard  evaporation  during 
dry  weather.  The  soil  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  baked 
hard  after  a  rain,  but  the  crust  should  be  broken  up  with  a  horse 
cultivator  as  soon  after  a  rain  as  it  can  be  worked.  Cultivation 
should  be  discontinued  after  the  first  of  August,  in  order  to 
encourage  early  ripening  of  the  wood.  The  weeds  that  grow 
after  this  time  of  year  will  do  no  harm. 

One  of  the  best  tools  for  early  cultivation  of  small  seedlings 
is  Breed's  Weeder,  which  may  be  worked  both  ways  and  cleans 
out  the  weeds  to  perfection.  The  ordinary  corn  cultivator  is 
also  a  good  implement  for  this  purpose.  Later  cultivation 
should  consist  of  working  the  soil  with  a  one-horse  cultivator 
or  plow.  If  the  horse  implements  are  properly  used  there  will 
be  no  necessity  of  hand  hoeing,  for  the  few  weeds  that  grow  in 
the  rows  of  trees  will  do  no  injury  to  them.  Some  planters  sow 
oats  among  the  young  trees  for  protection  when  cultivation 
ceases,  but  if  field  mice  are  abundant  it  may  be  best  not  to  do 
so.  Late  in  autumn  of  the  first  year  or  two  after  planting  some 
soil  should  be  turned  towards  the  trees  with  a  plow,  to  protect 
them. 

Thinning.  In  growing  prairie  groves  we  should  always 
aim  to  have  the  tops  of  the  trees  just  touch  one  another  without 
serious  crowding,  but  still  have  the  soil  shaded  and  protected 
from  wind.  In  order  to  bring  this  about,  the  grove  must  be 
thinned  occasionally,  for  although  the  trees  would  thin  them- 


se  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

selves  if  left  alone  it  would  be  at  the  expense  of  growth  and  per- 
haps cause  serious  injury.  Trees  that  are  crowded  together  may 
suffer  more  from  drouth  than  those  that  have  plenty  of  room 
for  their  roots.  This  is  especially  true  of  tender  trees  on  dry 
land.  If  the  trees  begin  to  crowd  one  another  the  poorest 
should  be  removed,  but  this  should  be  done  carefully  and  never 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  let  in  the  sunlight,  which  would  encour- 
age the  growth  of  grass,  weeds  and  side  branches.  Thinning 
may  be  done  at  any  time,  but  if  the  wood  taken  out  is  to  be  used 
for  fence  posts  or  poles  it  would  be  better  to  cut  in  winter  and 
peel  at  once  to  aid  k  in  curing. 

The  Blowing  Out  of  Small  Seedlings  planted  in  prairie 
soil  is  not  uncommon  where  they  are  in  very  exposed  situations. 
The  movement  of  the  young  seedlings  by  the  wind  keeps  the  soil 
loose  around  them,  which  the  severe  winds  blow  away.  Occa- 
sionally by  such  means  the  roots  may  be  left  three  or.  four  inches 
out  of  the  ground  the  first  season.  In  such  very  severe  loca- 
tions it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  mulch  the  soil  with  straw  or  sim- 
ilar material  until  the  seedlings  are  well  established,  after  which 
they  may  be  cultivated,  or  the  mulching  process  may  be  contin- 
ued until  they  will  take  care  of  themselves. 

The  Proper  I/ocation  of  the  Buildings  on  a  Farm 
is  a  very  important  matter  and  seldom  receives  the  attention 
which  its  importance  demands.  The  position  of  the  buildings 
determines  the  location  of  the  drives  and  of  the  shelterbelts  if 
any  are  to  be  planted.  There  are  many  factors  which  should 
enter  into  the  study  of  this  question,  among  the  first  of  which  is 
the  lay  of  the  land.  Good  drainage  and  good  water  are  the  first 
requisites  for  the  location  of  a  home,  after  which  come  con- 
venience and  beauty.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  first  location 
be  made  just  right,  since  when  other  improvements  and  build- 
ings have  been  commenced  it  can  seldom  be  changed  without 
much  extra  expense.  In  the  case  of  most  of  our  farms  the  sub- 
ject of  plans  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence,  as  small  cramped 
grounds  about  inconveniently  arranged  buildings  bear  abundant 
evidence. 

In  figure  5  is  shown  four  plans  suggestive  of  the  proper  loca- 
tion of  the  shelter  belts  about  farm  buildings  located  on  level 
prairies,  and  varying  according  to  the  location  of  the  main  high- 
way. Five  acres  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle,  25  rods  wide  and  32 


LOCATION  OF  FARM  BUILDINCzS. 


r,7 


rods  long,  are  included  in  the  land  about  the  buildings,  and  this 
has  a  shelter  belt  five  rods  wide  on  the  north  and  west  sides, 
and  on  the  south  side  two  rows  of  trees  ten  feet  apart,  with  the 


Figure  5.  Suggestion  for  laying  out  the  grounds  about  the  buildings 
on  prairie  farms,  showing  arrangements  adapted  to  a  highway  located 
on  four  different  sides.  Size  30x37  rods,  enclosing  five  acres,  exclusive  of 
shelterbelt  on  north  and  west  sides  five  rods  wide.  Rows  of  trees  indi- 
cated. See  figure  (6)  for  further  details  and  suggestions^ 

trees  one  rod  apart  in  the  rows.  Within  this  enclosure  are  all 
the  farm  buildings,  orchard,  fruit  and  vegetable  garden,  barn- 
yards, etc.  The  house  should  be  within  100  feet  of  the  road,  and 
the  stock  buildings  at  least  100  feet  from  the  house  and  garden. 
About  the  buildings  and  garden  some  supplementary  wind- 


58 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


breaks  and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  will  be  needed  for  wind 
protection  and  for  beautifying  the  place.  This  arrangement 
gives  plenty  of  room  for  the  buildings,  barnyards,  garden  and 
orchard,  and,  while  all  the  land  enclosed  may  not  be  needed 
for  these  purposes,  the  remainder  is  well  adapted  to  the  growing 


•37 


Highway 


Figure  6.  Suggestion  in  detail  for  laying  out  the  grounds  about  the 
buildings  on  a  prairie  farm.  Highway  on  south,  size  30x37  rods  enclosing 
five  acres;  windbreak  on  north  and  west  five  rods  wide.  Two  rows  of 
trees  next  to  highway.  Rows  of  trees  indicated. 

of  general  farm  crops.  The  plans  are  only  suggestive  and  no 
attempt  is  made  to  work  out  details,  and  there  are  compara- 
tively few  farrps  that  they  would  fit  exactly.  For  instance,  while 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  buildings  centrally  located,  their  posi- 
tion must  frequently  be  pushed  to  one  side  on  account  of  a 
swamp  or  lowland  which  is  not  suitable  for  them,  or  their  posi- 
tion may  be  determined  by  a  beautiful  natural  grove.  Figure  6 
shows  a  plan  for  a  south  front  drawn  on  a  larger  scale.  It  may 
often  be  desirable  to  change  the  shape  of  the  land  enclosed,  but 


LOCATION  OF  FARM  BUILDINGS.  59 

in  the  great  majority  of  prairie  farms  a  plan  similar  to  this  would 
work  out  to  good  advantage  and  the  area  enclosed  by  wind- 
breaks could  often  be  increased  to  ten  acres  to  good  advantage. 
A  rule  that  should  be  carefully  followed  in  all  tree  plantings 
is  that  the  view  from  the  most  commonly  used  rooms  of  any- 
thing that  is  suggestive  of  pleasant  associations  or  that  is 
especially  interesting  or  entertaining  should  not  be  cut  off. 
Under  this  head  would  be  included  the  view,  from  the  living- 
room  windows,  of  the  traveled  wagon , road  or  perhaps  of  the 
railroad,  of  the  neighboring  houses  or  perhaps  a  nearby  lake, 
and  of  the  important  fields  on  the  farm,  especially  those  where 
stock  is  pastured.  These  views  can  generally  be  secured  without 
seriously  impairing  the  value  of  the  windbreaks,  by  cutting  small 
openings  in  them  or  perhaps  by  simply  shortening  the  trees,  so 
that  they  will  not  interfere  with  the  line  of  sight. 


CHAPTER  V, 

FOREST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT. 

The  timber  lands  of  Minnesota  should,  as  a  rule,  be  managed 
so  as  to  get  the  greatest  cash  returns  from  them,  for  that  only 
is  practical  forestry  which  has  this  fundamental  feature  always 
in  view.  Our  virgin  forests  have  contained,  and  those  remaining 
now  contain,  a  large  percentage  of  trees  past  their  prime  and 
losing  in  value  each  year  they  stand.  Such  forest  products 
should  be  worked  up  as  soon  as  a  good  market  is  found  for 
them.  In  virgin  forests  there  is  no  increase,  the  annual  growth 
being  just  balanced  by  the  annual  decay  under  normal  condi- 
tions. 

The  Cultivation  of  Trees  on  timber  lands  in  this  section 
has  never  received  much  attention,  and  the  only  data  as  to  the 
rate  of  increase  that  we  have  to  follow  are  what  can  be  obtained 
from  the  native  forests,  and  these  are  for  this  reason  only 
approximately  correct.  In  European  countries  and  elsewhere 
it  has  been  proved  by  long  experience  that  more  timber  is 
grown  per  acre,  and  that  the  growth  is  much  more  rapid,  on  land 
where  some  attention  is  given  to  systematic  forestry  than  on  that 
which  is  left  to  itself, -and  it  will  seem  reasonable  to  believe  this, 
when  we  consider  that  much  of  the  energy  of  trees  may  be 
expended  in  fierce  competition  with  neighbors,  which  may 
weaken  them  all  and  perhaps  bring  about  unhealthy  conditions, 
and  that  natural  forest  land  is  generally  unevenly  stocked  with 
trees,  many  of  which  are  rotten  or  otherwise  defective,  and 
often  with  those  that  are  not  the  most  profitable  kinds  to  grow. 
In  the  cultivated  forests  unnecessary  crowding  is  prevented  by 
judicious  thinning,  and  the  land  is  kept  evenly  and  completely 
stocked  with  the  most  profitable  kinds. 

Succession  of  Tree  Growth  is  an  expression  sometimes 
used  as  though  there  were  a  natural  rotation  of  trees  on  the  land. 
There  is  nothing  of  the  sort.  Sometimes  hard  woods  will  follow 
pine,  or  the  pine  the  hard  woods,  where  the  two  were  mixed  at 


FOREST  REGENERATION  AND  TREATMENT. 


Figure  7.     Virgin   Forest. 
White  and  Red  Pine  mixed.     Near  Mille  Lacs.   Good  Natural  Regeneration. 


62  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

the  time  of  cutting  and  there  was  a  young  growth  of  one  or  the 
other  kind  which  had  a  chance  to  grow  when  its  competitor  was 
removed.  Where  land  is  severely  burned  after  being  cut  over, 
the  trees  that  show  first  are  generally  the  kinds  with  seeds  that 
float  long  distances  in  the  wind,  such  as  Poplar  and  Birch,  or 
those  having  fruits  especially  liked  by  birds,  such  as  the  Bird 
Cherry,  which  is  very  widely  distributed.  These  show  first  on 
account  of  getting  started  first.  The  pine  and  the  other  trees 
may  come  in  later  owing  to  their  being  seeded  later  or  owing 
to  the  later  advent  of  conditions  favorable  to  their  germination 
and  growth.  It  may  happen  in  the  case  of  burnt-over  pine  land 
that  pine  seed  is  distributed  over  it  the  first  year  after  it  is 
burned,  but  owing  to  there  being  no  protection  from  the  sun 
the  young  seedlings  of  White  and  Norway  Pine  which  are  very 
delicate,  are  destroyed.  After  a  young  growth  of  Poplars  has 
appeared  the  pine  seed  may  find  just  the  right  conditions  for 
growth  for  a  few  years  and  finally  get  ahead  of  the  poplars  and 
crowd  them  out,  while  in  the  meantime  it  is  being  much 
improved  by  the  presence  of  the  poplars,  which  grow  rapidly 
and  force  the  pines  to  make  a  tall  growth.  On  the  other  hand, 
however,  the  poplars,  birches  and  other  trees  and  shrubs  and 
even  weeds  may  sometimes  make  so  strong  a  growth  as  to  kill 
out  the  young  pine  seedlings  if  they  are  not  sufficiently  well 
established  at  the  time  the  mature  growth  is  cut. 

Regeneration  is  a  term  commonly  used  in  forestry  to  sig- 
nify the  renewal  of  forest  trees  upon  the  land.  It  is  a  convenient 
term  and  well  worthy  of  general  introduction  into  the  forest 
literature  of  this  country.  The  different  forms  of  regeneration 
may  be  referred  to  as  (i)'  regeneration  by  natural  seeding,  (2) 
regeneration  by  artificial  seeding,  (3)  regeneration  by  sprouts 
and  suckers,  (4)  regeneration  by  planting  seedlings,  (5)  regen- 
eration by  planting  cuttings.  The  method  of  regeneration  best 
adapted  for  one  section  may  not  be  at  all  fitted  for  another  under 
different  conditions,  and  often  it  is  best  to  combine  two  or  more 
of  the  different  forms  of  regeneration. 

Regeneration  by  Seed.  Where  natural  regeneration  by 
seed  can  be  easily  brought  about,  it  is  generally  the  best  practice. 
This  is  especially  true  in  sections  where  timber  is  comparatively 
cheap,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  this  country.  It  may  be 
greatly  assisted  by  stirring  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  good  seed 


NATURAL  REGENERATION.  63 

years,  and  in  other  ways  bringing  about  conditions  conducive 
to  the  germination  and  growth  of  the  seeds.  Where  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  use  it,  a  disk  harrow  is  an  admirable  implement  for 
breaking  up  the  forest  floor  so  as  to  allow  the  germination  of 
seeds.  Where  a  disk  harrow  cannot  be  used  to  advantage,  and 
it  can  seldom  be  so  used  on  new  land  in  this  country,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  use  a  drag  made  by  tying  together  several  oak 
branches  or  small  logs.  Good  seed  years  do  not  occur  very 
often  in  our  most  desirable  species,  and  it  is  very  important  to 
take  advantage  of  these  good  years  when  they  do  come.  At 
such  times  it  is  often  a  good  practice  to  make  extra  cuttings  in 
order  to  let  in  light  and  air,  as  well  as  to  stir  the  soil  and  so 
make  it  possible  to  secure  a  good  catch  of  the  seed. 

The  methods  adopted  to  secure  natural  regeneration  by 
seed  may  be  divided  into  three  systems,  each  of  which  may  be 
best  adapted  to  some  special  conditions.  These  are  known  (i) 
as  the  Selection  Method,  (2)  as  the  Strip  Method  and  (3)  as  the 
Group  Method. 

The  Selection  Method  refers  to  the  cutting  of  the  mature 
trees  and  to  the  removal  of  inferior  trees  to  make  room  for  the 
better  kinds.  In  this  system  much  care  should  be  exercised  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  grass,  which  generally  comes  in  when 
the  cutting  is  done  more  rapidly  than  the  seeding  trees  can 
seed  the  bare  land.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  just  as  important 
to  exercise  care  that  the  young  seedlings  which  have  started 
have  sufficient  light  so  that  they  can  make  a  good  growth  and 
not  be  shaded  out  by  the  older  trees.  The  removal  of  a  single 
tree  often  lets  in  so  very  Httle  light  that  seedlings  cannot  get  a 
good  start.  On  this  account  the  group  method  is  probably  best 
adapted  for  general  use. 

Strip  Method  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  the  system  where 
the  trees  are  removed  in  narrow  strips  across  which  the  remain- 
ing older  trees  can  easily  scatter  their  seed.  The  best  width  of 
strips  will  depend  on  the  species  and  the  local  conditions.  Some 
who  advocate  this  method  claim  that  the  strips  should  not  be 
wider  than  the  height  of  the  trees,  while  others  would  allow 
strips  three  or  four  times  the  height  in  the  case  of  the  elm, 
maples  and  pine,  and  in  the  case  of  birch  even  eight  times  may 
not  be  too  much.  Such  strips  should  generally  begin  on  the 
side  opposite  from  the  prevailing  winds  at  seeding  time,  so  the 


G4 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


seed  will  be  blown  onto  the  denuded  land.  In  the  case  of  hill- 
sides the  strips  should  generally  extend  along  near  the  sum- 
mits, and  successive  strips  should  be  on  the  lower  sides  to  pre- 
vent washing  of  the  soil.  The  strips  may  extend  on  one  or  two 
sides,  and  in  shape  should  often  be  adapted  to  the  contour  of 
the  land. 

The    Group    Method    is   a   system   of   cutting   strips   suc- 
cessively on  the  inside  of  certain  groups.     This  may  be  termed  a 


Figure  8.  Diagram  illustrating  the  system  followed  in  the  group 
method  of  cutting.  Cuttings  are  begun  at  points  marked  i,  and  are 
gradually  extended;  by  successive  cuttings  as  indicated  by  figures  2,  3,  4 
and  5.  After  Schlich. 

natural  method,  and  for  general  use,  especially  in  mixed  woods 
and  where  the  land  and  conditions  are  quite  valuable,  it  is  much 


REGENERATION  BY  ARTIFICIAL  SEEDING.       G5 

the  best.  It  gives  a  chance  to  adapt  the  method  of  cutting  to 
the  different  species  and  to  the  different  conditions  which  may 
be  found  in  the  forest.  For  instance,  a  tamarack  swamp,  dry 
knoll  covered  with  oak,  a  steep  hillside,  and  level,  rich,  rocky 
land,  each  covered  with  the  trees  peculiar  to  it,  would  very 
likely  all  be  included  in  almost  any  forest  tract  of  any  considera- 
ble size  in  the  northern  states,  and  each  portion  should  receive 
special  treatment.  We  can  begin  with  one  group  or  several, 
and  we  can  start  our  regeneration  in  each  group  perhaps  where 
there  is  already  a  good  growth  of  young  trees.  In  fact  this  sys- 
tem gives  us  a  chance  to  begin  regeneration  where  the  greatest 
necessity  or  the  best  chance  for  it  already  exists. 

The  size  of  the  opening  will  depend  here  as  in  the  strip 
method  on  the  species  grown  and  their  conditions.  Generally 
the  first  openings  will  be  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  acre  or 
more,  and  the  strips  taken  around  it  should  in  width  not  greatly 
exceed  the  height  of  the  trees  in  the  strip  next  to  be  cut. 

Of  course  the  regeneration  in  any  case  should  be  managed 
with  the  same  care  that  should  be  given  to  any  well  managed 
forest  to  bring  about  the  predominance  of  the  most  valuable 
kinds  under  the  best  light  and  soil  conditions. 

Regeneration  by  Artificial  Seeding.  Occasionally  it  may 
be  desirable  to  sow  seed  in  woodlands.  This  is  especially  so  in 
the  case  of  some  of  our  nut  trees  such  as  black  walnut,  butter- 
nut and  oaks,  which  readily  renew  themselves  by  such  means. 
In  the  case  of  pine  and  Spruce,  however,  success  is  quite  uncer- 
tain under  such  treatment.  Perhaps  it  is  most  certain  with  pine 
and  spruce  where  it  is  practicable  to  furrow  out  with  the  nlow, 
as  for  instance  it  might  be  on  some  of  the  sandy  lands  of  Min- 
nesota where  furrows  might  be  run  between  the  trees  or  the 
land  loosened  in  patches  with  a  hoe.  In  this  case  the  standing 
trees  afford  the  proper  shade  conditions  for  the  seedlings.  In 
the  case  of  clear  fields,  it  is  quite  a  simple  matter  to  sow  the  seed 
in  furrows.  Where  the  moss  is  thick  on  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  it  off  in  squares,  or  long  strips  may  be 
sown  after  preparation.  The  seed  will  seldom  grow  if  it  is  sown 
in  deep  or  thick  moss.  Where  seed  is  sown  broadcast  over 
ordinary  forest  land  the  seedlings  are  liable  to  be  killed  out  by 
the  weeds,  which  generally  come  in  quickly  as  soon  as  the  sun- 
light is  allowed  upon  the  soil.  Pine  and  many  other  seeds  are 
5 


66  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

sometimes  sown  in  clear  fields  with  oats,  when  the  straw  protects 
from  the  sun  in  summer  and  the  stubble  holds  the  snow  and  acts 
as  winter  protection.  Seed  of  ash,  maple,  elm  and  some  other 
trees  may  sometimes  be  sown  in  the  hills  with  corn  to  advantage 
in  prairie  planting,  and  willow  cuttings  may  also  be  used  in  the 
same  way  or  with  beans. 

Natural  Reseeding  of  the  land  is  then  almost  the  only 
practical  means  of  restocking  the  land  in  this  section,  which 
should  receive  attention  here,  as  other  methods  are  too  expen- 
sive. It  generally  takes  place  in  this  section,  and  the  only  rea- 
son why  it  is  not  more  successful  is  the  frequent  destruction  of 
the  young  seedlings  by  fires.  The  small  crooked  branching  pine 
and  other  seeding  trees  that  are  always  left  by  lumbermen  in 
their  operations  here,  and  generally  considered  worthless,  per- 
form a  very  important  work  in  producing  seed,  and  it  is  a  pity 
that  there  are  not  more  such  trees  left  to  produce  seed  for  our 
cut-over  lands.  When  such  trees  escape  the  first  burning  after 
the  land  is  cut  over,  they  often  remain  for  twenty  years  doing 
their  blessed  work  of  distributing  seed  each  year,  and  when  the 
conditions  exist  for  germination  and  growth  the  seed  grows  and 
lives.  Sometimes  where  such  trees  are  not  left  by  lumbermen, 
or  where  they  have  been  destroyed  by  fire,  it  has  taken  twenty 
years  to  get  the  land  properly  reseeded  to  White  Pine  by  the 
slow  process  of  seeding  from  trees  at  a  distance  of  half  a  mile 
or  more. 

The  Covering  of  Tree  Seeds  in  Woodland,  whether 
the  seeds  are  sown  naturally  or  artificially,  can  often  be  best 
accomplished  by  stirring  up  the  soil  with  a  strong  harrow  or  a 
brush  drag  made  of  the  branches  of  an  oak  or  other  tree  having 
strong  wood.  This  may  sometimes  be  done  most  advan- 
tageously before  the  seeds  fall,  and  at  other  times  after  they 
have  fallen.  Where  the  soil  is  made  loose  and  the  forest  floor 
is  broken  up  before  the  seeds  fall,  they  are  generally  sufficiently 
covered  by  wind  and  rain.  They  may  sometimes  be  covered 
most  satisfactorily  by  driving  a  flock  of  sheep  over  the  land 
after  the  seed  has  fallen,  the  feet  of  the  sheep  pressing  the  seed 
into  the  ground. 

Regeneration  by  Planting  Seedlings.  This  form  of 
regeneration  is  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent  in  sections 
where  timber  is  high  in  price.  It  is  often  the  most  economical 


REGENERATION  BY  PLANTING  SEEDLINGS.      67 

way  of  securing  a  stock  of  coniferous  trees  upon  the  land. 
Under  the  conditions  which  frequently  prevail  on  our  cut-over 
land  there  is  very  little  chance  for  natural  or  artificial  regenera- 
tion of  desirable  kinds  by  seed,  owing  to  the  fact  that  all  the 
seed-producing  trees  were  cut  when  the  land  was  logged,  or 
have  since  been  destroyed  by  fire  and  the  ground  covered  by  a 


Figure 


Old    pine   cuttings   after  being   once   burned   over. 


growth  of  weeds  and  inferior  trees;  but  seedling  pines  can  often 
be  set  out  at  intervals  of  perhaps  ten  feet  apart  each  way  where 
they  would  be  sufficiently  crowded  by  the  weeds,  poplar  and 
other  fast  growing  trees,  so  that  they  would  take  on  an  upright 
form  quite  free  from  side  branches  until  their  tops  interlaced, 
after  which  they  would  crowd  one  another.  Such  planting  can 
be  done  here  at  an  expense  of  about  five  dollars  per  acre.  It 
is  necessary  for  the  success  of  such  work  that  weeds  be  pre- 
vented from  smothering  the  trees,  which  they  are  liable  to  do 


68  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

until  the  seedlings  get  well  started,  and  to  prevent  this  it  may 
be  necessary  to  cut  back  the  crowding  plants  every  summer. 

It  is  quite  common  in  European  forests  to  see  patches  of 
land,  perhaps  four  feet  square,  at  twenty-foot  intervals,  which 
have  been  stripped  of  their  mossy  cover  and  sown  to  seed. 
These  afford  a  sort  of  nursery  throughout  the  forest,  from  which 
seedlings  may  be  transplanted  and  on  which  a  number  of  seed- 
ling plants  are  left  and  form  a  good  forest  cover. 

Mound  Planting  is  a  term  which  signifies  the  planting  of 
trees  on  mounds  or  on  the  surface  of  the  land.  This  is  some- 
times done  on  wet  lands  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  roots 
above  standing  water,  and  it  is  a  practice  which  can  be  followed 
in  the  case  of  several  trees  that  do  well  upon  rather  moist  soil, 
although  they  may  die  if  put  at  once  into  standing  water  when 
young. 

Regeneration  by  Cuttings.  There  are  few  trees  that  can 
be  grown  in  general  practice  from  cuttings,  but  it  is  the  best  way 
to  start  willows,  since  seedlings  of  them  are  generally  quite  diffi- 
cult to  obtain.  Some  species  of  the  poplar  can  also  be  grown  to 
best  advantage  in  this  way. 

Regeneration  by  Sprouts  and  Suckers.  Some  trees, 
such  as  the  willow,  poplars,  oaks,  chestnuts  and  maples  renew 
themselves  very  readily  by  sprouts  and  suckers.  Land  that  is 
managed  on  this  plan  for  renewal  is  termed  coppice.  With  the 
exception  of  the  willow  and  possibly  one  or  two  other  trees,  the 
growth  from  coppice  is  not  so  large  as  that  from  seedlings,  and 
it  is  seldom  employed  for  other  purposes  than  the  production 
of  firewood.  In  order  to  get  the  best  growth  in  this  way,  the 
trees  should  be  cut  close  to  the  ground  when  they  are  dormant, 
and  the  stumps  left  highest  in  the  center,  so  they  will  tend  to 
shed  water  and  not  rot.  The  advantage  of  cutting  close  to  the 
ground  is  that  the  sprouts  that  come  out  from  the  trunk  soon 
get  roots  of  their  own,  which  makes  them  more  durable  than 
when  they  depend  entirely  upon  the  old  stump  roots  and  they 
are  much  less  liable  to  be  broken  off  in  high  winds. 

Pollarding  consists  in  cutting  back  the  side  branches  of  a 
tree,  or  cutting  off  the  main  stem  at  a  few  feet  from  the  ground. 
The  branches  may  be  cut  off  close  to  the  main  stem  or  at  a  short 
distance  from  it,  the  latter  method  being  preferable.  New 


PRUNING  OF  FOREST  TREES.  69 

sh.oots  spring  from  the  cuts,  and  these  are  again  cut  when  of 
suitable  size.  What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  season  and 
manner  of  cutting  in  the  previous  paragraphs  is  practically  true 
here.  This  process  is  mostly  used  in  the  case  of  willows  and 
poplars  to  obtain  material  for  basket  work,  small  poles,  fuel,  etc. 

Time  of  Rotation  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the  age  to 
which  trees  are  grown.  The  length  of  this  time  will  depend  on 
the  species  and  on  the  conditions.  For  some  species  not  less 
than  eighty  years  should  be  allowed  for  full  maturity,  while  still 
others  may  be  successfully  worked  on  a  thirty-year  rotation 
period.  It  is  not  used  in  the  same  sense  as  in  ordinary  agri- 
cultural operations,  where  it  signifies  frequent  changes  of  the 
crop  for  several  years  with  a  view  to  getting  the  most  out  of  the 
soil.  Since  trees  do  not  impoverish  the  soil,  but  improve  it, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  any  such  method  of  rotation  in  forestry 
as  there  is  in  agriculture. 

Pruning  of  Forest  Trees  is  generally  an  expensive  opera- 
tion and  little  is  required  if  trees  are  properly  crowded  when 
young,  so  that  they  take  on  an  upright  form  free  from  side 
branches.  If  they  are  not  crowded  when  young,  many  side 
branches  are  formed,  which  generally  die  out  when  the  trees  get 
large  enough  to  shade  all  the  ground.  In  some  cases  these  dead 
branches  drop  quickly  to  the  ground,  and  in  others  they  remain 
for  years,  producing  knots  and  irregularity  in  the  wood  formed 
in  the  meantime  and  should  be  removed.  Trees  grown  in  the 
open  retain  their  lower  branches  more  or  less  throughout  life 
and  they  produce  in  consequence  timber  of  inferior  value  as 
compared  with  trees  grown  in  crowded  woods. 

Large  wounds  made  by  cutting  off  green  branches  should  be 
covered.  It  is  often  desirable  to  remove  dead  branches  and  it 
is  the  practice  to  do  so  in  some  of  the  plantings  of  Wnite  Pine 
that  have  been  made  in  New  England.  It  is  said  that  the  lum- 
ber there  is  so  greatly  improved  by  so  doing  that  the  operation 
is  a  paying  one.  But  under  ideal  conditions  for  the  develop- 
ment of  timber  trees  very  little  is  gained  by  pruning. 

The  Young  Growth  is  Often  Injured  in  ordinary  lumber- 
ing operations  by  the  felling  of  the  trees,  which  bend  them  to  the 
ground  and  often  break  them.  Where  special  care  is  desired  to 
protect  the  young  growth  it  may  be  desirable  to  lop  off  the 


70  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

branches  before  felling.     This  is  practiced  to  some  extent  where 
forests  are  very  valuable. 

The  Small  Dead  Twigs  on  such  trees  as  spruce,  and  also 
the  shrubbery  which  may  surround  them,  are  often  a  very  val- 
uable protection  against  sun-scald.  This  also  protects  from 
drying  winds,  which  would  otherwise,  perhaps,  sweep  through 
the  forests  and  do  them  injury.  Forest  trees  seldom  do  best 
where  they  are  subject  to  a  strong"  draft  of  wind  around  the 
trunks.  While,  under  some  conditions,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
remove  the  dead  branches  from  trees,  yet  even  if  it  is  decided 
to  do  this  in  the  interior  of  the  forest,  it  is  generally  best  to 
leave  the  borders  without  such  pruning  in  order  to  protect  it 
from  drafts. 

Forest  Weed  is  a  term  used  to  signify  any  growth  that 
may  occur  in  forests  which  crowds  the  other  growth,  and  so  pre- 
vents it  from  developing  to  the  best  advantage.  It  may  apply 
to  raspberry  bushes,  hazel  brush,  poplars  and  other  similar 
materials  which  often  come  in  our  forests  in  the  early  growth 
of  the  plantation;  or  even  to  large  inferior  trees  which  are  in 
the  way  of  the  proper  development  of  the  better  species.  But  a 
tree  may  at  one  period  of  its  growth  be  of  much  value  in  a  for- 
est in  producing  shade  and  acting  as  a  nurse  tree,  while  later  on 
in  its  growth,  after  its  usefulness  has  been  completed,  it  may  be 
regarded  as  a  weed. 

Thinning  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  forester's  art  in 
securing  good  timber  and  in  reseeding  the  land.  The  ideal  con- 
dition in  the  life  of  timber  trees  is  to  secure  a  natural  crop  of 
seedlings  so  crowded  when  young  as  to  increase  very  rapidly  in 
height  and  produce  slender  trunks  free  from  side  branches. 
When  this  crowding  has  gone  far  enough  the  less  valuable  and 
weaker  trees  should  be  removed  to  give  the  better  trees  suf- 
ficient room  for  their  crowns  to  develop.  These  remaining  trees 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  will  again  crowd  one  another  too 
severely,  and  this  process  of  removing  poorer  trees  must  then 
be  repeated.  Then  when  the  final  stand  of  trees  is  approaching 
maturity,  thinning  should  be  commenced  to  let  in  light  and  air 
to  produce  the  conditions  under  which  seedlings  develop  to  best 
advantage. 

Heavy  thinning  should  be  practiced  only  after  very  careful 


IMPROVEMENT  CUTTINGS.  71 

consideration.  It  is  seldom  desirable,  as  it  lets  in  too  much  sun- 
light and  may  encourage  a  growth  of  grass.  Where  natural 
regeneration  is  practiced,  only  such  openings  should  be  made 
as  will  be  shortly  covered  with  valuable  species. 

Important  Principles  that  Should  be  Remembered: 

(i)  That  increase  of  wood  is  proportional  to  leaf  surface  and 
therefore  the  lands  should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  covered 
with  a  canopy  of  leaves,  which  should  be  on  trees  that  are  valua- 
ble for  their  timber.  (2)  That  leaves  need  light;  therefore 
partly  shaded  branches  form  but  little  and  imperfect  wood,  and 
those  that  are  very  heavily  shaded  die  out;  crowding  prevents 
the  formation  of  branches  on  trees  and  is  important  in  securing 
the  best  timber.  The  amount  of  waste  in  branchwood  varies 
greatly,  it  being  very  much  in  trees  that  are  entirely  open  grown, 
and  very  little  in  trees  that  have  been  severely  crowded.  But 
as  over-crowding  causes  decay  it  is  important  to  do  the  thinning 
as  soon  as  the  tree  has  taken  on  a  proper  form.  Crowding  on 
one  side  causes  crooks,  and  these  can  be  prevented  by  cutting 
off  the  crowding  tree  or  branch. 

Waste  in  Forests  occurs,  as  has  been  partially  stated,  in 
branchwood,  crooks,  rot,  and  in  growing  of  the  kinds  of  trees 
that  are  not  marketable.  The  kinds  that  are  marketable  depend 
largely  oh  the  demand.  In  considering  this  subject  it  is  best 
to  be  conservative  and  to  select  kinds  that  are  of  stable  value, 
and  not  likely  to  go  out  of  fashion.  Since  crowding  is  best  done 
by  small  trees  among  the  large  timber  trees,  they  should  be  of 
a  kind  that  are  marketable  when  small. 

Much  waste  in  timber  is  caused  by  cutting  trees  when  small. 
The  amount  of  waste  in  the  shafts  of  straight  treej,  excluding 
trunks,  branches  and  bark,  may  vary  from  eighty-one  per  cent 
in  a  tree  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  ninety  feet  high,  to  six 
per  cent  in  a  tree  forty  inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump  and 
one  hundred  feet  high.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  is  great 
loss  from  cutting  trees  when  small,  especially  if  they  are  growing 
rapidly. 

Improvement  Cuttings  is  a  term  used  to  signify  an 
improvement  of  forests  by  cutting  out  inferior  and  crowding 
trees.  This  is  a  very  important  matter  in  getting  almost  any 
forest  tract  into  a  condition  where  it  can  be  managed  to  best 


72  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

advantage  under  the  group,  strip  or  other  systems.  Generally 
it  will  at  first  consist  in  removing  the  dead,  rotten  and  mature 
trees  and  those  of  inferior  species,  and  so  give  better  oppor- 
tunity for  the  more  valuable  kinds.  This  is  a  matter  that  calls 
for  much  good  judgment.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to 
make  openings  so  large  but  what  they  will  shortly  be  occupied 
by  seedlings  of  valuable  trees.  Where  large  openings  are  made 
they  are  apt  to  become  covered  with  grass,  which  is  a  great 
detriment  to  any  forest  growth  and  always  indicates  that  the 
cutting  has  been  done  too  rapidly  for  best  results. 

The  Ax  and  Saw,  then,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing 
paragraphs,  furnish  the  most  important  means  when  used 
judiciously  in  securing  the  best  growth  of  timber  in  forests  of 
this  section  and  the  proper  succession  of  growth  on  forest  land. 

The  Farm  Woodlot  is  a  customary  feature  on  many  farms 
in  the  northeastern  states.  As  a  rule  it  occupies  land  that  is  of 
very  little  value  for  any  other  purpose.  It  is  generally  not  man- 
aged at  all,  but  left  to  look  after  itself,-  and  often  it  is  pastured. 
It  is  expected  to  furnish  firewood,  posts  and  poles  and  an  occa- 
sional stick  of  dimension  stuff.  Too  often  the  best  is  cut  and  the 
poorest  left  to  grow.  Under  such  rough  treatment  the  woodlot 
becomes  stocked  with  an  inferior  growth  that  is  of  little  value 
except  for  firewood,  and  it  does  not  produce  as  much  of  that  as 
it  might  under  a  different  system  of  management. 

Improving  the  Woodlot.  The  general  rules  laid  down  for 
the  management  of  forests  will  apply  here.  The  cattle  should 
be  kept  out,  so  as  to  give  the  young  seedlings  a  chance  to  grow. 
Improvement  cuttings  should  be  introduced  with  a  view  of  get- 
ting rid  of  the  crooked  and  mature  trees  and  those  of  inferior 
species  and«of  encouraging  a  growth  of  young  seedlings  of  val- 
uable kinds, 


CHAPTER  VL 

PROPAGATION. 

Trees  are  Grown  from  Seeds  or  by  Division.  The  latter 
term  includes  increase  by  cuttings,  layers,  buds  and  grafts. 
Plants  grown  from  seeds  are  generally  more  vigorous  and 
longer  lived  than  those  of  the  same  species  propagated  in  any 
other  way.  Trees  should  be  grown  from  seeds  when  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  do  so,  but  willows  and  some  other  trees  are  apparent 
exceptions  to  this  rule  and  seem  to  do  as  well  when  grown  from 
cuttings  as  when  grown  from  seeds.  Varieties  do  not  generally 
perpetuate  their  peculiar  characteristics  when  grown  from  seeds, 
and  must  therefore  be  propagated  by  some  method  of  division. 

The  Most  Desirable  Trees  from  Which  to  Propagate 
are  those  of  good  form  and  healthy  growth;  the  latter  is  the  one 
most  important  requisite,  especially  if  new  plants  are  to  be 
grown  by  any  method  of  division.  It  is  not  so  essential  in 
selecting  seeds,  as  even  weak  plants  may  produce  good  seed- 
lings, but  unhealthy  cuttings,  layers  or  grafts  are  of  very  uncer- 
tain growth.  In  general,  it  is  best  that  the  stock  trees  be 
healthy  throughout,  but  a  tree  may  have  a  rotten  trunk  due  to 
some  injury  and  still  have  perfectly  healthy  branches  and  be  a 
desirable  tree  from  which  to  propagate. 

SEEDS. 

Sources  of  Seeds.  In  growing  trees  from  seeds  the 
source  of  the  seeds  is  very  important.  It  may  be  given  as  a 
safe  general  rule  that  seeds  are  most  desirable  which  come  from 
trees  grown  in  as  severe  a  climate  as  that  in  which  the  seeds  are 
to  be  sown.  It  has  been  found  that  trees  of  Boxelder  and  Red 
Cedar  grown  from  seeds  gathered  in  Missouri  are  not  nearly  so 
hardy  in  this  section  as  those  from  seeds  grown  in  our  own  state. 
It  has  also  been  found  that  seeds  from  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  where  the  climate  is  very  humi'd,  produce 
trees  which  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  withstanding  the  concji- 


74  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

tions  of  this  section  as  trees  grown  from  seeds  from  the  eastern 
slopes,  where  the  summers  are  very  dry  and  hot  and  the  winters 
very  dry  and  cold.  Our  climate  is  especially  trying  to  trees, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  much  more  care  in  the  selection 
of  tree  seeds  here  than  it  is  in  the  more  favored  climate  of  the 
eastern  and  western  coast  states. 

There  are  Conditions  Under  Which  Uvery  Species  of 
Tree  Thrives  Best  and  makes  its  greatest  growth,  but  the  trees 
produced  under  these  conditions  are  not  always  the  hardiest.  As 
we  reach  the  limits  of  their  growth,  trees  have  a  tendency  on 
account  of  drouth  or  cold  to  become  smaller,  more  compact  in 
form  and  to  fruit  younger;  e.  g.,  the  Boxelder  is  a  large  tree 
in  Kansas  and  Missouri,  but  as  it  gets  towards  the  Manitoba 
line  we  find  it  becomes  dwarfed  and  more  bushy  in  habit. 
Towards  the  southern  limit  of  its  range  the  tree  becomes  more 
open  in  habit  and  more  liable  to  disease.  The  Scotch  Pine 
seeds  imported  into  this  country  are  generally  saved  from  the 
small  scrubby  trees  that  are  found  in  the  higher  altitudes  of  the 
mountains  of  Europe,  because  such  trees  produce  the  most 
seeds  and  they  are  most  easily  gathered  from  them,  while  seeds 
are  seldom  gathered  from  the  large  timber,  trees  of  this  species, 
and  it  is  very  likely  that  this  poor  seed  stock  is  responsible  for 
much  of  the  scrubby  appearance  of  many  Scotch  Pine  planta- 
tions in  this  section. 

Trees  Have  a  Strong  Tendency  to  Perpetuate  Qualities 
which  have  been  developed  in  them  by  climate  and  soil  condi- 
tions. Hence,  even  though  an  essential  point  in  considering  the 
value  of  any  tree  is  its  hardiness,  the  question  of  size  is  impor- 
tant and  should  be  taken  into  account,  as  we  generally  wish  to 
grow  trees  of  as  large  size  as  practicable.  We  may  conclude, 
then,  that  since  trees  from  a  very  cold  climate  generally  lack  in 
hardiness,  and  those  from  a  very  severe  climate  may  lack  in 
size,  it  is  best  to  procure  seeds  from  the  best  trees  grown  near 
by  or  from  those  grown  under  similar  climatic  conditions  else- 
where. It  is  not  generally  necessary  to  limit  this  range  very 
closely,  as  a  hundred  miles  north  or  south  of  a  given  point  will 
seldom  make  much  difference  in  hardiness,  unless  the  climatic 
conditions  are  very  dissimilar. 

The  Place  Where  the  Trees  that  we  are  to  Set  Out  are 
Grown  is  not  of  so  great  importance  as  the  source  of  the  seeds 


GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS.  75 

from  which  they  are  grown;  e.  g.,  seedlings  of  Red  Cedar  grown 
in  Missouri  from  seeds  of  native  Minnesota  trees  would  be  safer 
to  plant  here  than  seedlings  raised  in  Minnesota  from  the  seeds 
of  native  Missouri  trees. 

Seedling"  Variations.  In  our  common  trees  variations  are 
not  sufficiently  marked  but  that  we  think  of  the  trees  as  coming 
true  from  seeds,  and  yet  careful  observation  will  show  to  any 
one  that  each  seedling  plant  is  different  from  neighboring  plants 
of  the  same  species.  Sometimes  a  seedling  will  occur  that  pos- 
sesses especially  pleasing  or  curious  characteristics  that  are  very 
marked  and  desirable.  In  such  cases  the  seedling  is  generally 
propagated  by  some  method  of  bud-division  and  makes  a  new 
variety.  In  this  way  have  originated  such  highly-esteemed  kinds 
as  Wier's  Cut-leaf  Maple,  which  was  a  chance  seedling  of  the 
Soft  Maple,  the  Weeping  American  Elm,  Cut-leaf  Birch,  Weep- 
ing Mountain  Ash,  Pyramidal  Arborvitse,  and  a  host  of  other 
kinds  that  are  propagated  by  bud-division  by  nurserymen.  The 
person  who  is  on  the  lookout  for  these  or  other  variations  will 
have  no  trouble  in  finding  many  that  may  perhaps  be  worth 
naming  and  propagating. 

Gathering  Seeds.  All  kinds  of  seeds  should  be  gathered 
when  ripe.  In  some  cases  it  is  best  to  pick  them  from  the  trees 
even  before  they  are  quite  ripe,  'after  which  they  will  ripen  if 
kept  dry.  Unripe  seeds  do  not  keep  as  well  as  perfectly  ripe 
seeds.  Most  kinds  of  tree  seeds  are  most  cheaply  gathered  from 
the  ground.  In  some  cases  this  method  can  be  greatly  facili- 
tated by  cleaning  up  the  land  under  the  trees  so  it  will  be  smooth 
and  even.  Seeds  of  some  species  can  often  be  swept  up  at  little 
expense  from  under  trees  growing  along  the  highway. 

Germination  of  Seeds.  There  are  many  conditions  which 
affect  the  germination  of  seeds: 

(i)  Seeds  which  are  thoroughly  ripened  before  they  are 
gathered  produce  the  best  plants.  Very  immature  seeds  will 
very  often  grow,  but  the  tendency  with  them  is  to  produce  weak 
plants.  (2)  Freshly  gathered  seeds,  as  a  rule,  are  preferable  to 
old  seeds  for  sowing,  and  seeds  that  have  never  been  allowed  to 
become  very  dry  are  more  likely  to  grow  than  those  which  have 
been  severely  dried.  This  is  especially  true  of  most  of  the  kinds 
of  seeds  that  ripen  in  early  summer,  the  most  of  which  lose  their 


76  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

vitality  very  quickly  when  stored.  (3)  Some  seeds,  such  as 
those  of  the  Plum,  Cherry  and  Black  Walnut,  require  severe 
freezing  when  moist  in  order  to  germinate.  (4)  Seeds  that  are 
covered  with  water  will  not  generally  grow.  This  is  true  at  least 
of  our  northern  tree  seeds.  (5)  The  seeds  of  some  trees  germi- 
nate at  a  temperature  near  freezing,  while  others  require  a  much 
higher  temperature.  (6)  After  seeds  of  some  plants  have 
become  very  dry,  scalding  may  aid  them  in  germinating,  while 
with  others  scalding  is  injurious.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
soak  seeds  for  one  or  two  days  in  tepid  water,  and  then  mix  with 
sand  and  freeze  before  sowing.  Lindley  records  that  seeds  found 
in  raspberry  jam  grew  after  passing  through  the  heat  necessary 
to  boil  syrup  (240  degrees  Fahr.)  and  that  seeds  of  Acacia  and 
Lophantha  grew  after  being  boiled  five  minutes,  but  our  com- 
mon tree  seeds  will  not  stand  such  treatment. 

Stratification,  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  connection,  refers 
to  the  storing  of  seeds  mixed  with  layers  of  earth,  leaves  or  other 
material.  It  is  customary  to  apply  the  term  solely  to  seeds  that 
are  mixed  in  this  way  and  kept  frozen  over  winter.  It  is  the 
common  practice  with  the  seeds  of  such  trees  as  the  Black  Wal- 
nut, Hickory,  Basswood,  Plum,  Cherry  and  Mountain  Ash. 
Where  only  small  quantities  are  to  be  cared  for  they  are  gener- 
ally mixed  in  boxes  and  the  boxes  buried  in  well  drained  soil  out 
of  doors,  but  where  large  quantities  are  to  be  handled  they  may 
be  mixed  with  soil  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  left  until 
spring;  such  a  pile  is  termed  a  pit.  One  of  the  best  materials 
with  which  to  cover  seed  pits  is  inverted  grass  sod.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  have  the  material  that  is  mixed  with  the  seed  so  fine 
that  it  will  easily  go  through  a  screen  and  leave  the  seeds  sep- 
arated for  sowing. 

Wintering  Acorns  and  Other  Nuts  in  I/arge  Quanti- 
ties. On  account  of  the  great  liability  to  injury  where  a  large 
amount  of  nuts  are  stored  in  heaps,  and  on  account  of  the  imprac- 
ticability many  times  of  stratifying  them  with  sand,  the  following 
plan  is  resorted  to  in  some  sections: 

A  house  is  made,  preferably  with  a  sandy  floor,  so  as  to  secure 
good  drainage,  and  is  covered  with  sod  roof  and  sides,  so  as  to 
keep  out  most  of  the  frost.  This  may  be  of  any  size,  but  perhaps 
20  feet  in  width  and  any  length  would  be  very  convenient.  The 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SEEDS.  77 

nuts  are  spread  over  the  ground  about  18  inches  thick,  and  are 
kept  stirred  until  frozen  in  winter.  As  soon  as  they  thaw  out, 
they  are  turned  once  a  day.  In  this  way  they  are  prevented  from 
molding,  and  from  the  other  injuries  that  are  so  common  to  nuts 
stored  in  large  quantities.  It  would  be  desirable  .to  keep  the 
temperature  from  ever  going  much  below  freezing. 

Seeds  May  be  Classified  Into  Three  Groups:  (i)  Those 
that  ripen  in  spring  and  early  summer,  (2)  deciduous  tree  -seeds 
that  ripen  in  autumn,  and  (3)  coniferous  tree  seeds. 

Seeds  that  Ripen  in  Spring  and  Early  Summer  should 
be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Red 
Elm,  sown  within  a  few  days  or  weeks,  as  they  retain  their  vitality 
but  a  short  time.  (Red  Elm  seed  will  not  grow  until  the  follow- 
ing spring).  In  raising  seedlings  of  this  class  it  is  important  to 
have  land  that  will  retain  its  moisture  during  the  summer  months 
or  else  that  which  can  be  conveniently  irrigated,  since  these  seeds 
must  often  be  sown  during  very  hot,  dry  weather,  and  as  they 
cannot  be  covered  deeply  they  are  very  liable  to  fail  with  any  but 
the  best  conditions.  The  thousands  of  seedlings  of  Cottonwood, 
Elm  and  Soft  Maple  that  spring  up  on  the  sand  bars  along  our 
rivers  and  lake  shores  show  what  are  the  best  conditions  for 
these  seeds  to  germinate. 

Cottonwood  Seedlings  can  be  grown  by  scattering  the 
branches  bearing  unopened  seed  pods  along  rows  in  moist  soil 
and  covering  the  seed  lightly  when  it  falls,  but  they  are  of  so 
uncertain  growth  that  most  of  our  nurserymen  depend  upon  the 
sand  bars  and  lake  shores  for  their  supply.  . 

Blm,  Soft  Maple  and  Mulberry  seeds  generally  grow 
well  on  any  good  moist  soil.  They  should  be  sown  thickly  in 
drills  eight  inches  wide  and  three  feet  apart,  or  in  narrow  drills. 
Elm  seeds  should  be  covered  with  about  one-half  inch  of  soil, 
Mulberry  with  about  one-fourth  inch  and  Soft  Maple  with  about 
one  inch.  If  the  weather  is  dry  the  soil  over  the  seeds  should 
be  well  packed,  and  if  the  weather  continues  dry  the  rows  should 
be  watered.  Watering,  however,  is  seldom  necessary  on  reten- 
tive soil  if  the  soil  has  been  properly  packed.  With  proper  con- 
ditions seeds  so  planted  will  start  quickly  and  grow  rapidly;  the 
Elm  will  grow  from  six  to  eighteen  inches  and  the  Soft  Maple 
twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  high  before  the  first  autumn.  Such 


78  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

seedlings  are  large  enough  for  permanent  setting  in  forest  planta- 
tions or  windbreaks.  They  may  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  seed 
bed  another  year  without  injury,  but  should  be  transplanted 
before  the  growth  of  the  third  season  begins. 

Seeds  of  Deciduous  Trees  that  Ripen  in  Autumn  may  be 
sown  to  advantage  in  the  autumn;  provided,  (i)  the  soil  is  not 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  become  too  solidly  packed  over  them 
before  spring;  (2)  they  are  not  liable  to  dry  up  or  wash  out; 
or  (3)  they  are  not  subject  to  injuries  from  rodents,  insects  or 
other  animals.  In  many  locations  some  or  all  of  these  possible 
injuries  may  make  spring  sowing  most  desirable  with  most  kinds 
of  seeds.  Our  most  successful  nurserymen,  however,  prefer  to 
sow  in  autumn,  and  try  to  bring  about  the  conditions  that  make 
it  successful. 

In  the  Matter  of  Storing  Seeds  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down 
any  exact  rule  to  follow,  and  here,  as  in  all  other  similar  matters, 
considerable  must  be  left  to  good  judgment.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, it  is  perfectly  safe  to  winter  over  all  of  the  seeds  of  hardy 
plants  which  ripen  in  autumn,  by  burying  them  in  sand  out  of 
doors. 

Tree  Seeds  that  Ripen  in  Autumn  may  be  divided  into 
four  classes,  which  require  different  methods  of  treatment  to 
grow  them,  viz.,  dry  seeds,  seeds  with  fleshy  coverings,  nut  seeds 
and  leguminous  tree  seeds. 

Dry  Seeds,  like  those  of  the  Ash,  Birch,  Hard  Maple  and 
Boxelder,  are  very  certain  to  grow  when  sown  in  the  spring  in 
drills  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  easily  worked,  in  the  same  way 
as  recommended  for  Soft  Maple  and  Elm.  If  not  sown  until 
spring  they  will  have  to  be  kept  over  winter,  and  when  only  a 
small  quantity  is  to  be  kept  over  this  is  best  done  by  spreading 
the  seeds  on  the  surface  of  the  hard  ground,  covering  with  an 
inverted  box  and  digging  a  ditch  around  it  to  carry  off  the  water, 
or  the  seeds  may  be  mixed  with  sand  and  kept  in  a  dry,  cool 
place.  Large  quantities  may  be  kept  on  dry  ground  under  a 
shed.  These  seeds  will  stand  considerable  drying,  but  if  allowed 
to  become  very  dry,  hot,  or  moist,  their  vitality  may  be  injured 
or  destroyed. 

Seeds  with  Fleshy  Coverings,  as  those  of  the  Cherry  and 
Plum,  should  be  kept  from  getting  dry  before  planting.  The  best 
way  to  handle  them  is  to  separate  them  from  the  pulp,  mix  with 


SEEDS  OF  CONIFEROUS  TREES.  T9 

moist  sand  out  of  doors,  and  keep  them  moist  until  planted.  It 
is  generally  safe  to  sow  such  seeds  in  the  autumn  on  good  land, 
but  some  growers  prefer  to  sow  them  in  the  spring.  This  class 
of  seeds  requires  to  be  frozen  before  germinating.  If  allowed  to 
get  dry  before  being  frozen,  they  should  be  mixed  with  moist 
sand  for  a  few  days  until  plump,  or  they  may  be  soaked  in  water, 
but  care  must  be  taken  that  they  do  not  get  water  soaked.  Some- 
times the  dry,  hard  shells  of  such  seeds  seem  to  be  waterproof. 
In  this  case,  if  the  seeds  are  of  special  value,  it  is'a  good  plan  to 
file  a  hole  through  the  shell,  so  as  to  let  the  seed  become  moist. 
Most  seeds  of  this  class  grow  the  first  year  if  properly  handled, 
but  some  of  them — for  example,  the  Red  Cedar  and  the  Wild 
Thorn — even  with  the  best  management,  will  remain  dormant  in 
the  ground  for  one  year  before  growing. 

Nut  Seeds,  as  those  of  the  Oak,  Hickory  and  Walnut, 
should  be  handled  as  recommended  for  seeds  with  fleshy  cover- 
ings, but  are  more  sensitive  about  being  severely  dried.  As  they 
do  not  transplant  readily,  it  is  very  desirable  to  plant  them  where 
they  are  to  remain  permanently.  They  should  be  covered  about 
two  inches  deep. 

Seeds  of  I/eguminous  Trees,  as  those  of  the  Black  Locust, 
Honey  Locust  and  Coffeetree,  will  stand  severe  drying  for  a 
long  time  and  still  grow,  provided  they  are  treated  with  hot  water 
just  before  planting.  In  this  case  the  hot  water  should  be  poured 
over  the  seeds  shortly  before  they  are  sown,  and  be  allowed  to 
stand  until  cool,  when  it  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  seeds 
have  swollen  up;  these  should  be  picked  out,  and  the  remainder 
be  treated  again  with  hot  water,  and  the  process  repeated  until 
all  have  swollen.  Seedlings  of  this  class  generally  transplant 
readily,  and  are  managed  in  the  same  way  that  is  here  recom- 
mended for  the  Ashes  and  Maples. 

Seeds  of  Coniferous  Trees,  such  as  Pine,  Spruce,  Tamarack 
and  Arborvitae,  are  dry  and  winged,  but  the  Red  Cedar  has  a 
fleshy,  berry-like  covering  surrounding  its  seed.  The  seeds 
that  grow  in  cones  are  most  easily  gathered  before  being  shed 
from  the  cones.  The  cones  should  be  gathered  before  they  open, 
and  then  dried,  after  which  those  of  most  species  will  open,  and 
the  seeds  can  be  threshed  out.  Cones  of  a  few  trees,  as  those 
of  the  Jack  Pine,  will  not  open  without  artificial  heat.  These 


80  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

can  be  opened  by  gently  heating  them  over  a  stove  or  in  an 
oven  to  a  temperature  of  from  100  to  150  degrees  Fahr.  Seeds 
of  this  class  grow  readily  when  sown,  but  must  be  very  carefully 
stored  or  they  will  lose  their  vitality.  They  should  be  kept  simi- 
larly to  the  seed  of  the  Ash  and  Boxelder,  but  are  more  liable 
to  injury  than  these  kinds  from  too  much  moisture  or  heat,  and 
for  this  reason  some  careful  growers  prefer  to  always  keep  them 
mixed  with  dry  sand  in  a  cool  shed. 

The  seeds  of  the  Red  Cedar  hang  on  the  tree  all  winter,  and 
must  be  picked  by  hand.  They  should  be  soaked  in  strong  lye 
for  twenty-four  hours,  the  fleshy  covering  removed  by  rubbing 
them  against  a  fine  sieve,  and  then  stratified  in  sand,  where  they 
will  be  frozen  during  the  winter.  Even  with  this  treatment  they 
will  seldom  grow  until  the  second  year. 

Raising  Coniferous  Trees  from  Seed.  The  land  selected 
for  sowing  the  seed  should  have  a  light,  porous  surface  soil, 
preferably  underlaid  with  a  moist  subsoil  that  will  not  dry  out 
easily.  It  should  be  so  located  as  to  have  good  circulation  of 
air  over  it,  that  the  plants  may  dry  ort  quickly  after  rains,  and  it 
must  be  so  shaded  as  to  keep  off  about  one-half  of  the  sunlight. 
This  latter  permits  a  play  of  light  and  shade  over  the  bed  all 
day,  and  is  about  the  condition  under  which  we  find  nature  rais- 
ing such  seedlings  where  trees  partially  shade  the  ground  and 
protect  them  from  the  constant  rays  of  the  sun.  In  practice  we 
aim  to  secure  these  conditions  as  follows:  A  piece  of  well 
drained,  rather  sandy  soil,  in  an  airy  place,  is  selected,  and  laid 
out  in  beds  four  feet  wide.  In  May  the  seeds  are  sown  rather 
thickly  (about  three  good  seeds  to  a  square  inch),  either  broad- 
cast or  in  rows,  and  covered  with  about  one-fourth  inch  of  sandy 
loam  and  then  with  about  one-fourth  inch  of  clear  sand.  Some 
of  the  smaller  seeds,  like  those  of  White  Spruce,  should  not  be 
covered  more  than  one-fourth  inch.  Before  the  seedlings  break 
the  ground,  a  framework,  six  feet  above  the  beds,  is  made,  and 
covered  with  laths,  laid  about  one  and  one-half  inches  apart, 
running  north  and  south,  or  with  sufficient  brush  to  shut  out 
about  one-half  the  sunlight.  If  the  bed  is  very  much  exposed 
to  the  winds  it  should  have  similar  protection  on  all  sides.  In 
such  a  place  as  this,  or  in  woodlands  where  these  conditions  can 
be  fulfilled,  evergreens  can  be  raised  with  much  certainty,  while 
if  planted  in  the  open  ground  most  kinds  are  sure  to  fail. 


RAISING  CONIFEROUS  'TREES.  si 

The  most  common  cause  of  failure  with  those  who  try  to 
raise  evergreens  is  what  is  known  as  "damping  off,"  which 
occurs  only  while  the  plants  are  growing  rapidly  the  first  year. 
In  such  a  case  the  seeds  start  well,  and  the  seedlings  grow  vig- 
orously for  a  short  time,  or  until  we  have  a  spell  of  damp 
weather,  and  then  die  off  with  great  rapidity.  It  seems  that  the 
sunlight  and  the  mud  that  has  been  spattered  on  the  plants  so 
weaken*  them  that  they  are  liable  to  disease.  For  this  reason 
we  shade  the  bed,  and  cover  with  sand,  which  will  not  allow  the 
mud  to  be  spattered  over  the  seedlings,  and  in  very  moist  warm 
weather  we  occasionally  apply  dry  sand  to  dry  off  the  plants. 


Figure  10.  Evergreen  seed  bed  shaded  with  a  screen  of  old  brush 
blaced  on  a  frame. 

For  most  kinds  of  conifers  the  shade  is  required  for  at  least  two 
years. 

Coniferous  tree  seedlings  grow  very  slowly  when  young,  sel- 
dom making  a  growth  of  more  than  two  or  three  inches  the  first 
year.  The  most  rapid  growing  of  our  pines  seldom  produce  a 
growth  of  more  than  sixteen  inches  in  four  years,  and  should 
not  be  moved  to  their  permanent  place  until  about  this  time. 
They  should,  however,  be  transplanted  from  the  seed  bed  to  a 
temporary  place  when  two  years  old,  to  prevent  crowding  and 
to  facilitate  root  growth. 

On  the  approach  of  winter  the  beds  of  coniferous  seedlings 
should  be  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  straw  or  leaves, 
evergreen  branches,  or  other  material  that  will  afford  protec- 
tion from  the  sun  and  from  alternate  freezing  and  thawing. 
6 


$2  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

This  should  be  removed  in  the  spring  after  all  danger  from  dry- 
ing cold  winds  has  passed. 

Depth  to  Cover  Seeds.  Most  of  our  tree  seeds  should, 
in  good  soil,  be  covered  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
inch;  but  this  is  rather  too  much  for  such  small  seeds  as  the 
Birch,  Alder  and  Cottonwood,  while  the  Black  Walnut,  Native 
Plum,  Acorns  and  other  large  seeds  and  seeds  of  Boxelder, 
Ash,  Soft  Maple  and  Basswood  may  often  be  covefed  two 
inches  to  advantage  if  the  soil  is  somewhat  dry.  It  is  a  good 
rule  not  to  cover  any  tree  seeds  deeper  than  is  necessary  to 
secure  permanent  moisture,  and  on  wet  or  heavy  land  only  a 
very  thin  covering  is  desirable.  If  the  land  is  very  heavy,  it  is  a 
good  plan  not  only  to  cover  lightly  but  to  sow  more  thickly 
than  usual,  as  a  large  number  of  seeds  may  be  able  to  push  up 
through  the  surface  soil  when  a  few  would  fail  to  do  this. 

The  Amount  of  Seeds  of  Deciduous  Trees  to  Sow 
on  a  given  area  depends  very  much  on  the  kind  and  quality  of 
the  seeds  and  the  soil  in  which  they  are  to  be  sown.  As  a  rule, 
thick  is  better  than  thin  sowing.  The  seeds  of  Boxelder,  Ash 
and  Maple  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  about  one  good  seed 
to  the  square  inch;  Elm  and  Birch  should  be  sown  twice  as 
thick.  Plums  and  cherries  sown  in  drills  should  be  allowed 
about,  one  inch  of  row  for  each  good  seed.  Black  Walnut,  But- 
ternut, Hickory  and  similar  seeds  should  preferably  be  planted 
three  or  four  in  a  place,  and  all  but  one  seedling  cut  out  when 
nicely  started.  If  sown  in  drills  they  should  be  placed  from 
three  to  six  inches  apart.  Rather  thick  seeding  does  not  seem 
to  be  any  hindrance  to  the  making  of  a  good  growth  by  seed- 
lings of  most  of  our  broad-leaved  trees  the  first  year,  but  if  left 
thick  in  the  seed  bed  the  second  year  they  are  often  seriously 
stunted.  On  this  account  such  seedlings  should  be  transplanted 
or  thinned  out  before  the  beginning  of  the  second  year.  In 
nursery  planting  it  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  in  freshly  stirred  land, 
as  the  seeds  are  far  more  likely  to  get  a  good  start  in  it  than  in 
soil  that  has  remained  untilled  long  enough  to  become  crusty 
and  lumpy.  Then,  if  the  seeds  are  planted  immediately  after 
cultivation  has  been  given,  and  while  the  soil  is  still -moist,  they 
have  at  least  as  good  a  chance  as  the  weeds  to  start,  while  oth- 
erwise the  weeds  are  soon  ahead  of  the  seedlings. 

It  is  important  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  mellow  between 


HEIGHT  OF  ONE-YEAR  SEEDLINGS. 


83 


the  Seedlings,  and  to  keep  the  weeds  very  carefully  removed 
until  at  least  the  middle  of  July,  after  which  they  may  sometimes 
be  left -to  advantage  to  afford  winter  protection;  but  in  the  case 
of  very  small  seedlings  this  protection  is  best  given  by  a  light 
mulch,  put  on  in  autumn  and  taken  off  in  spring,  and  the  weeds 
should  be  kept  out. 

If  the  seeds  of  Red  Cedar,  the  Thorn,  Mountain  Ash,  and 
other  seeds  that  require  a  long  time  to  start,  are  sown  in  the 
spring,  and  do  not  germinate,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cover  the  bed 
with  about  an  inch  or  two  of  hay  or  leaves,  keep  out  weeds, 
and  let  this  mulch  remain  until  the  following  spring,  when  the 
seeds  will  probably  be  in  condition  to  grow,  and  the  mulch 
should  then  be  removed. 


TABI^B  vSHOWING  THE  APPROXIMATE  HEIGHTS  OF  ONE-YEAR 
SEEDLINGS  GROWN  ON  GOOD  AVERAGE  SOU,  IN  MINNESOTA. 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 

COMMON   NAMES. 

Height  in 
Inches. 

White  Pine  

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
2 
3 
3 
2 
3 
4 
3 

0 

Western  White  Pine  
Red  Pine 

Pinus  divaricata  
Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum   

Jack  Pine 

Rock.  Pine 

Scotch  Pine           

Austrian  Pine    

iMrix  laricinct  

European  L,arch  
White  Spruce  

Black  Spruce  

Engelmann  Spruce  
Norway  Spruce  

Hemlock  

• 

Balsam  Fir  
White  Fir  

A  bies  concolor  

84 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPROXIMATE  HEIGHTS  OF  ONE-YEAR 

OLD  SEEDLINGS  GROWN  ON  GOOD  AVERAGE  SOIL 

IN    MINNESOTA.     (.Continued.) 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 

COMMON    NAMES. 

Height  in 
Inches. 

Arborvitte 

2 

Red  Cedar 

3 

Common  Juniper 

2 

Black  Walnut  

1° 

Butternut           

12 

Shellbark  Hickory  

g 

Hicoria  minima  

Bitternut  Hickory  

4 

Black  Willow 

10 

Sdlix  amvgdctloides  

Peachleaf  Willow   

10 

White  Willow 

10 

Salix  lucida  

Shining  Willow  
Aspen         

6 
10 

Populus  grandidenta  

I,argetooth  Poplar  
Balsam  Poplar  

12 
10 

16 

Betula  papyrifera    

Canoe  Birch  

4-8 

European  White  Birch 

6-10 

Yellow  Birch              .      ... 

4-8 

Hop  Hornbeam           

4-6 

Blue  Beach  

4-6 

White  Oak         

4-8 

Bur  Oak        

4-8 

Red  Oak  

6-12 

Scarlet  Oak  

6-12 

White  Elm 

6-12 

Cork  Elm 

6-10 

Slippery  Elm        

10-20 

8-10 

Red  Mulberry  

6-10 

HEIGHT  OF  ONE-YEAR  SEEDLINGS. 


85 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPROXIMATE  HEIGHTS  OF  ONE-YEAR 

OLD  SEEDLINGS  GROWN  ON  GOOD  AVERAGE  SOIL 

IN    MINNESOTA.     (.Continued.) 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 

COMMON  NAMES. 

Height  in 
Inches. 

010 

Wild  Crab 

4—8 

Pyrus  ctmtfricana  .  .... 

American  Mountain  Ash 

Pyrus  sambucifolia  

Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash 

4  8 

A  melanchier  ccinadensis  

Juneberry  . 

g 

Black  Thorn 

4—8 

Wild  Plum 

15 

Wild  Red  Cherry 

12 

Primus  serotina  
Prunus  virginianct  

Wild  Black  Cherry  
Choke  Cherry 

12 
I9 

g_|9 

8-12 

I/)CUSt 

24 

Sugar  Maple 

12 

Norway  Maple  .       ... 

12 

Red  Maple  

10 

Acer  saccharinum           

Soft  Maple  

24 

Acer  pennsylvanicum  

Striped  Maple  

4 

Acer  tartaricuni  

Tartarian  Maple  

4 

12 

sEsculus  hippocastamim  

Horse  Chestnut  
Ohio  Buckeye   

6 
4-6 

6-12 

Tilia  americana  

Basswood  
Russian  Olive  

6-12 
12 

White  Ash 

12 

Fraxinus  lanceolata  

Green  Ash         

12 

Fraxinus  nigra  

Black  Ash..  
Hardy  Catalpa  

8 
24 

Viburnum  lentago  

Black  Haw  

'        4-6 

80  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

CUTTINGS. 

Cuttings  are  pieces  of  the  branches  or  roots  which  have  the 
power  of  growing  and  forming  new  plants  when  placed  in  moist 
sand,  soil  or  other  material.  For  example,  the  pieces  of  the 
twigs  on  branches  of  many  kinds  of  willows  and  poplars,  when 
taken  while  the  tree  is  dormant,  will  root  when  placed  in  moist 
soil,  but  there  are  few  other  trees  that  grow  as  readily  from  cut- 
tings as  these.  Cuttings  of  the  roots  of  many  kinds  of  trees, 
as  the  White  Poplar,  Wild  Plum,  Yellow  Locust,  and  many 
others  that  sprout  from  the  roots,  will  grow  if  treated  about  the 
same  way  as  branch  cuttings. 

In  growing  trees  from  cuttings  the  source  of  the  cuttings  is 
not  of  so  great  importance  as  the  source  of  the  seed  from  which 
the  stock  trees  were  grown,  for  the  qualities  of  individual  trees 
are  probably  not  permanently  or  greatly  changed  by  climate. 
For  instance,  trees  grown  from  the  cuttings  of  Russian  Poplars 
would  be  as  "hardy  in  Minnesota  if  the  cuttings  came  from  St. 
Louis,  where  they  had  been  growing  for  years,  as  they  would  be 
if  imported  direct  from  Siberia.  However,  owing  to  a  longer 
growing  season  at  St.  Louis,  the  wood  might  be.  of  a  more  open 
texture,  and  perhaps  might  not  resist  cold  as  well  as  Minnesota- 
grown  wood;  but  after  one  season's  growth  in  Minnesota  it 
would  probably  be  as  hardy.  The  same  would  hold  true  of 
plants  propagated  by  any  method  of  division.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Willows  and  Poplars,  very  few  of  our  ornamental  trees 
grow  readily  from  cuttings.  The  best  time  to  make  cuttings  is 
in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the  leaves  will  strip  easily  from  the  twigs. 
Most  -of  the  willows  and  poplars  will  grow  readily  from  cuttings 
made  in  the  spring,  and  even  those  made  in  summer  will  gener- 
ally grow  if  planted  in  moist  soil.  For  this  purpose  the  smaller 
branches  with  the  leaves  removed  should  be  used.  They  may 
also  be  rooted  from  growing  twigs  with  the  leaves  left  on,  pro- 
vided the  cut  surfaces  are  placed  in  water,  as  they  would  be  if 
stuck  in  the  soil  of  a  swamp  or  treated  the  same  as  cuttings  of 
geraniums.  These  latter  ways,  however,  are  not  to  be  depended 
upon  for  general  propagation  purposes. 

The  Form  and  Sifce  of  Cuttings  is  a  matter  upon  which 
there  is  great  difference  of  opinion.  Cuttings  of  the  Willow 
from  one  bud  each  and  only  an  inch  or  two  long  up  to  those  a 


PROPAGATION  BY  CUTTINGS. 


87 


foot  or  more  in  diameter  and  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  length  can 
generally  be  made  to  grow,  but  probably  the  most  convenient 
size  for  general  planting  is  one-half  inch  in  diameter  and  twelve 
inches  in  length.  They  are  generally  tied  in  bunches  of  100  or 
200  each  for  convenience  in  handling,  and  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  all  the  butt  ends  one  way  to  facilitate  planting.  Very 
large  cuttings  are  liable,  to  decay  in  the 
center,  and  are  not  best  to  use,  although 
they  often  make  a  very  rapid  growth. 
Poles  of  willows  and  poplars  are  some- 
times laid  in  furrows  where  they  will  gen- 
erally sprout  wherever  the  bark  is  laid 
bare  and  often  make  good  trees. 

In  Planting  Cuttings  of  ordinary 
size  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  soil  loose, 
and  then,  after  marking  off  the  rows,  the 
cuttings  can  be  pushed  into  the  land  the 
proper  depth.  If  not  desirable  to  plow 
all  the  land,  it  may  be  loosened  just  where 
the  rows  are  lo  come.  Where  a  subsoil 
plow  can  be  obtained,  it  can  be  made  very 
useful  for  this  purpose. 

Cuttings  should  be  planted  at  an  angle 
of  about  forty-five  degrees,  leaving  only  one  bud  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  the  soil  should  be  packed  firmly  around 


Figure    n.      A    bunch 
allow  cuttings. 


Figure  12.     Planted  cuttings,    showing  angle  and  depth 
at  which  to  plant  cuttings. 

them.  Those  set  in  a  slanting  position  settle  with  the  soil  and 
remain  firm,  while  those  set  vertically  mav  become  loosened 
by  the  settling  of  the  soil  near  them,  leaving  too  much  of  them 
exposed  above  the  surface,  unless  very  great  care  is  exercised 
in  planting.  The  rows  in  the  nursery  should  be  about  four  feet 
apart,  and  the  cuttings  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  though 


88  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

a  much  less  distance  may  sometimes  be  sufficient.  In  packing 
the  soil  over  the  cuttings  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  get  it 
very  solid  around  the  lower  end,  and  if  the  soil  is  very  dry,  the 
firmest  pressure  of  the  full  weight  of  a  man  over  the  base  of  each 
cutting  is  not  too  great;  in  fact,  when  the  soil  is  dry  it  cannot  be 
made  too  firm  over  the  cutting.  When  the  soil  is  moist,  how- 
ever, only  enough  pressure  should  be  used  to  bring  the  par- 
ticles in  close  contact  and  close  up  the  air  spaces. 

The  Cultivation  of  Cuttings  should  commence  shortly 
after  they  are  planted,  and  the  top  soil  should  be  kept  loosened 
to  the  depth  of  about  three  inches,  which,  while  not  disturbing 
the  solid  soil  around  the  base  of  the  cuttings,  prevents  evapora- 
tion from  the  soil. 

Time  of  Planting  Cuttings.  Spring  cuttings  may  be 
planted  at  once  where*  they  are  to  grow.  Autumn  cuttings  may 
be  planted  out  at  once,  provided  the  land  .is  not  wet,  but  when 
planted  at  this  season  they  should  be  covered  .with  soil  turned 
toward  them  with  a  plow.  In  the  spring  this  covering  should 
be  raked  off  before  the  buds  swell.  The  ground  being  warm  in 
autumn  often  causes  autumn-planted  cuttings  of  some  kinds  to 
root  before  cold  weather  sets  in,  and  if  made  up  before  the  first 
of  October  they  may  thus  score  quite  a  gain  over  spring-planted 
cuttings.  If  not  desirable  to  plant  in  the  autumn,  the  bundles 
of  cuttings  may  be  kept  over  winter,  buried  in  moist  soil,  prefer- 
ably that  which  is  somewhat  sandy,  where  there  is  no  standing 
water;  but  much  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  from  dry- 
ing out.  To  this  end  the  bundles  should  be  buried  so  as  not  to 
touch  each  other,  and  have  two  or  three  inches  of  soil  packed  in 
between  them.  If  they  are  kept  in  a  cellar,  moist  sawdust  will 
be  found  to  be  good  material  to  keep  them  in. 

The  amount  of  growth  made  by  cuttings  varies  much,  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  plant,  size  of  cuttings,  soil,  etc.  The  most  of 
our  willows  will  make  a  growth  of  three  or  four  feet,  on  good 
soil,  in  one  season,  from  ordinary  cuttings. 

The  Solar  Pit.  There  are  many  trees  that  will  not  grow 
from  cuttings  unless  they  have  their  roots  started  a  little  before 
planting.  This  is  most  easily,  accomplished  by  means  of  what  is 
called  the  "solar  pit,"  which  owes  its  success  to  the  fact  that  cut- 
tings root  first  at  the  warmer  end.  It  is  made  and  used  as  fol- 


I 


LAYERS.  .       89 

lows:  The  bundles  of  cuttings  are  heeled  in  as  recommended. 
In  the  spring  they  are  taken  out,  and  buried  close  together,  with 
the  butt  ends  uppermost,  in  a  warm  sunny  spot,  and  covered 
with  about  six  inches  of  soil.  A  hotbed  frame,  with  sash,  is  then 
put  over  the  spot,  to  warm  the  soil.  Sometimes,  instead  of 

using  sash,  the  soil  over  the  cut- 
tings is  covered  with  a  foot  or 
more  of  fermenting  manure.  In 
either  case  the  soil  is  warmed, 
and  the  formation  of  roots 
encouraged.  In  using  the  solar 
showing6  bundles116  ofSOcurttings  pit  the  rooting  process  should 
in  place  under  glass.  not  fe  carried  so  far  as  to  permit 

roots  to  show  plainly,  as  they  are  liable  to  be  broken  off  in 
planting  out;  but  the  cuttings  should  be  planted  out  as  soon  as 
they  show  signs  of  healing  over  on  the  butt  end.  This  healing- 
over  process  is  called  callousing,  and  in  many  plants  neces- 
sarily precedes  the  formation  of  roots. 

LAYERS. 

I/ayers  are  portions  of  the  branches  of  trees,  shrubs  or  vines 
which  are  covered  with  earth  without  being  separated  from  the 
parent  plant  and  there  take  root  and  grow.  These  are  cut  off 
from  the  main  plant  in  autumn  or  spring,  and  form  new  plants. 
Almost  all  trees  and  other  plants  can  be  rooted  in  this  way,  but, 
while  some  root  very  easily,  others  require  so  long  a  time  to  do 
so  as  to  make  it  impracticable  with  them. 

The  growing  of  trees  from  layers  is  seldom  practiced  in  this 
country,  but  in  some  European  nurseries  it  is  a  common  means 
by  which  to  increase  special  varieties  of  trees.  For  this  purpose 
what  is  commonly  known  as  mound  layering  is  often  used. 
This  consists  simply  of  drawing  the  soil  up  around  the  sprouts 
that  come  from  the  stump  of  a  tree,  covering  the  base  of  them 
about  a  foot  in  depth.  It  may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year 
after  the  sprouts  are  two  or  more  feet  high,  but  preferably  in  the 
spring.  After  the  sprouts  have  become  well  rooted  they  may  be 
removed  in  spring  or  autumn  and  treated  the  same  as  seedlings. 
Layering  is  sometimes  practiced  in  European  forests  to  fill  up 
vacancies,  and  a  similar  method  is  often  employed  in  nurseries. 


90  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


GRAFTAGE. 

Graftage  refers  to  the  growing  of  one  plant  on  the  stem,  root 
or  branch  of  another  plant.  There  are  several  forms  of  graftage, 
which  are  generally  known  as  grafting,  budding  and  inarching. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  graftage  in  the  growing  of  the 
different  varieties  of  fruit  trees,  and  it  is  also  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  growing  of  some  of  the  varieties  of  ornamental 
trees  that  cannot  be  grown  from  seed.  Trees  that  are  grown  by 
any  form  of  graftage  are  seldom  as  long-lived  as  those  grown  on 
their  own  roots,  and. these  methods  should  be  avoided  when  it 
is  practicable  to  do  so.  These  methods  are  not  much  used  in 
common  practice,  and  consequently  are  not  discussed  at  length 
here. 

Inarching"  is  a  rather  unusual  way  of  growing  plants.  It 
works  on  the  principle  that  when  the  growing  stems,  branches 
and  roots  of  the  same  or  closely  allied  plants  are  held  closely 
together  for  some  time  they  become  united.  Such  unions  of 
roots  are  frequently  found  in  woodlands;  in  some  cases  the 
roots  of  the  same  trees,  and  in  others  the  roots  of  different  trees, 
become  grown  together.  Occasionally  also  trees  are  found 
grown  together  by  their  branches  or  stems.  Inarching  is  some- 
times used  for  growing  the  Cutleaf  Birch,  in  which  case  the 
sprouts  from  a  stump  of  a  Cutleaf  Birch,  or  the  twigs  from  a 
small  tree  laid  on  the  ground,  are  tied  to  small  Birch  seedlings, 
which  have  been  grown  in  pots  and  plunged  to  their  rims  in  the 
ground  near  the  tree.  In  doing  this  the  bark  is  removed  for 
about  two  inches  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the  twig  and  seed- 
ling, which  are  then  tied  firmly  together.  It  should  be  done  by 
the  middle  of  June,  but  will  often  be  successful  if  done  even  a 
month  later.  They  should  be  kept  together  until  the  leaves  fall, 
and  then  the  branches  from  the  parent  tree  should  be  cut  away, 
leaving  the  seedlings  with  the  twigs  grown  fast  to  them.  These 
should  be  carefully  heeled-in  over  winter,  and  in  the  spring  the 
seedlings  should  be  cut  off  just  above  the  union,  so  as  to  throw 
all  their  strength  into  the  adopted  twig  of  the  Cutleaf  Birch. 
This  method  may  also  be  used  to  replace  lost  branches  on  trees 
or  vines. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

NURSERY  PRACTICE. 

Nursery.  This  term  is  applied  to  a  plot  of  land  used  for 
raising  plants  that  are  intended  for  planting  elsewhere  for  their 
final  growth. 

Soil  and  Cultivation.  The  best  soil  for  a  general  nursery 
is  a  deep,  rich,  reasonably  .level,  retentive  upland.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  grow  most  of  the  nursery  crops  in  rows,  so  that  they 
may  be  readily  cultivated.  The  land  should  be  plowed  deeply 
when  the  crop  is  planted,  and  the  surface  soil  kept  loose  and 
fine  during  all  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season,  or  until 
about  the  middle  of  July.  If  the  land  that  has  to  be  used  for 
a  nursery  is  rather  shallow,  it  should  be  gradually  deepened  by 
plowing  from  year  to  year,  and,  if  inclined  to  dry  out,  the  addi- 
tion of  large  quantities  of  organic  matter,  together  with  constant 
cultivation,  will  do  much  to  remedy  these  defects. 

The  cultivation  of  a  nursery  or  young  forest  plantation,  pro- 
vided the  latter  is  planted  in  rows,  should  consist  in  keeping 
the  land  stirred  to  the  depth  of  three  inches,  thus  giving  a  dust 
blanket,  which  will  protect  from  drouth.  After  the  first  of 
August  much  cultivation  is  likely  to  encourage  a  late  autumn 
growth,  which  should  be  avoided;  but  a  moderate  quantity  of 
buckwheat  or  oats  may  be  sown  then,  and  be  allowed  to  grow 
the  remainder  of  the  season,  to  serve  as  a  winter  protection — to 
hold  snows,  and  prevent  the  heaving  out  of  the  young  seedlings 
by  frost. 

GRADES  OF  NURSERY  STOCK. 

Nursery  stock  of  different  kinds  has  come  to  be  known  by 
such  convenient  names  as  seedlings,  transplants,  street  trees,  for- 
est-pulled seedlings,  etc. 


92  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Seedlings  are  yoimg  plants,  grown  from  seed,  that  have  never 
been  transplanted,  and  are  generally  designated  by  their  size  or 


Figure  14.     A  bunch  of  Green  Ash  Seedlings. 

age.     They  form  the   cheapest  class  of  nursery  stock,   and  are 
used  largely  for  starting  windbreaks. 

Transplants  are  seedlings  that  have  been  at  least  once  trans- 
planted, and  are  designated  by  the  size  and  number  of  times  they 
have  been  moved.  They  are  higher  in  price  than  seedlings,  but 
with  some  kinds  of  trees  they  are  much  more  likely  to  grow, 
and  may  be  well  worth  the  extra  price.  Evergreens,  especially 
pines,  will  seldom  do  well  unless  once  transplanted  before  being 
set  in  a  permanent  place. 

Street  Trees  include  the  trees  of  large  size  which  are  used 
for  street,  shade  and  ornamental  purposes.  To  be  of  the  best 
quality  they  should  have  been  transplanted  two  or  more  times 
and  have  received  some  attention  in  the  way  of  pruning  so  as  to 
give  them  a  good  form.  Such  trees  vary  much  in  quality  and 
price,  but  the  best  are  necessarily  rather  expensive. 

Forest-pulled  Deciduous  Trees  of  small  size  can  often  be 
obtained  at  a  very  low  price,  and  may  be  as  desirable  as  those 
that  are  nursery  grown. 

Forest-pulled  Evergreen  Seedlings  may  also  be  desirable, 
but  too  often  they  have  poor  roots,  or  have  been  so  injured  by 
poor  handling  that  they  are  generally  worthless. 

Forest-pulled  Shade  Trees  sometimes  grow  very  well,  but 
they  are  always  inferior  to  good  nursery-grown  trees.  They  are 
greatly  improved  by  having  their  roots  shortened  two  years 
before  they  are  to  be  removed,  and  when  so  treated  grow  very 
well. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

^v 

Transplanting  is   Simply  the  Removal  of  the  Plant. 

It  may  be  to  some  permanent  place,  as  a  park,  lawn,  or  street, 
or  it  may  be  done  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  root  system, 


TRANSPLANTING.  93 

and  to  give  the  tree  more  room  to  grow.  By  shortening  the 
long  roots  the  root  system  is  made  more  compact  and  better 
able  to  withstand  subsequent  removal.  This  may  be  done  by 
transplanting,  or  by  cutting  around  the  tree  with  a  spade  or  tree 
digger.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  do  this  to  trees  that  are  not 
easily  moved  on  account  of  their  long  branching  roots,  such  as 
the  Birch,  or  to  those  that  have  tap  roots,  like  the  Oak  and 
Walnut.  It  is  on  account  of  their  having  had  their  roots  short- 
ened so  they  can  all  be  moved  with  the  tree  that  nursery-grown 
trees  are  generally  superior  to  others. 

In  Transplanting  it  is  Important  to  take  up  a  sufficient 
amount  of  roots  to  support  the  plant,  and  as  a  rule  the  more 
roots  the  better  the  conditions  for  growth.  Very  long  roots 


Figure  15.     Extra  good  roots  on  a  forest- 
grown  Elm,  used  as  a  street  tree. 

should  be  shortened  unless  the  tree  is  removed  to  a  permanent 
place,  in  which  case  all  the  good  roots  should  be  left  on  the  tree. 
All  bruised  or  broken  roots  should  be  cut  off  in  either  case,  and 
the  top  of  the  tree  shortened  to  correspond.  In  transplanting 
trees  they  should  be  set  one  or  two  inches  lower  than  they  for- 
merly stood,  and  the  roots  should  be  spread  out  in  the  holes 
without  crowding.  It  is  customary  to  plant  many  kinds  of  small 
trees  in  furrows  made  with  a  plow. 

Very  I/arge  Trees  (those  over  six  inches  in  diameter)  are 
sometimes  successfully  planted  in  winter,  by  taking  them  up 
with  a  ball  of  earth.  This  is  clone  by  digging  a  trench  around 
the  tree,  late  in  the  autumn,  deep  enough  to  cut  most  of  the 


94  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

roots,  but  far  enough  away  from  the  tree  to  leave  a  large  ball  of 
earth.  The  trench  is  then  filled  in  with  a  mulch  of  some  kind, 
and  when  the  ground  is  frozen  the  tree  is  moved,  with  the  ball 
of  earth  attached,  to  the  hole  which  has  been  previously  prepared 
and  kept  free  from  frost. 

After  Trees  Have  Been  Moved,  or  had  their  roots  short- 
ened in  some  other  way,  they  should  generally  not  be  transplanted 
again  for  at  least  one  or  two  years,  during  which  time  they  will 
have  overcome  the  injuries  done  to  their  root  system.  The  time 
which  should  thus  elapse  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  tree,  and 
also  with  the  amount  of  injury  done.  Where  the  injury  is 
severe  a  much  longer  time  will  be  required  for  recovery  than 
where  it  is  slight. 

Time  to  Transplant.  Planting  of  trees  should  always  be 
done  when  they  are  dormant,  or  just  as  they  start  into  growth  in 
the  spring,  which  is  generally  from  the  middle  to  last  of  April. 
If  for  any  reason  it  is  desirable  to  risk  the  moving  of  trees  late 
in  the  spring,  after  the  leaves  have  started,  they  should  be  cut 
back  severely,  all  the  leaves  removed,  and  great  pains  be  taken 
to  secure  all  the  roots  and  to  prevent  their  drying  out.  Very 
hardy  deciduous  trees,  as  the  Elm,  Cottonwood,  Boxelder  and 
Ash,  can  often  be  successfully  moved  in  the  fall,  if  the  ground  is 
moist  at  the  time  of  removal,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
work  the  soil  in  very  compactly  between  the  roots,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  large  air  spaces  among  them.  If  the  trees  are  large, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  stake  them,  so  they  cannot  be  blown  about 
by  the  wind.  The  more  tender  trees  should  not  be  transplanted 
in  this  section  in  autumn,  and  even  the  hardiest  kinds  should 
never  be  moved  at  this  season  unless  the  soil  is  moist. 

Transplanting  Evergreens.  When  seedling  evergreens  are 
two  years  old  they  should  be  transplanted,  and  this  should  be 
done  about  once  in  three  years  afterwards,  until  they  are  moved 
to  their  permanent  places.  As  evergreens  are  very  sensitive  to 
being  moved,  this  requires  more  care  than  with  most  deciduous 
trees.  The  most  important  point  is  to  not  all  jw  the  roots  to 
have  even  the  appearance  of  being  dry.  They  may  be  trans- 
planted in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  works  easily  and  the 
roots  have  white  tips,  and  they  may  be  safely  transplanted  even 
up  to  the  time  that  the  new  growth  shows  about  an  inch,  but  at 


TRANSPLANTING.  95 

this  late  time  more  care  must  be  taken  in  doing  the  work  than 
when  it  is  done  earlier.  Evergreens  can  sometimes  be  moved 
successfully  in  August,  or  even  in  the  autumn,  if  they  are  to  be 
carried  only  a  short  distance  and  the  conditions. of  the  weather 
and  land  are  favorable;  but  this  is  not  a  time  for  general  plant- 
ing, and  it  is  seldom  advisable  to  do  it  at  this  season. 

The  Very  General  Error  is  Current  that  June  is  the  best 
time  to  plant  out  evergreens.  They  may  be  transplanted  at  this 
season  successfully  if  the  conditions  are  just  right  in  every  par- 
ticular, but  they  are  much  more  liable  to  failure  than  when  the 
work  is  done  earlier  in  the  season.  At  whatever  time  of  the 
year  evergreens  are  to  be  moved,  the  work*  should  be  done  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  protect  the  roots  from  having  even  the 
appearance  of  being  dry,  for  if  dried  ever  so  little  the  probabili- 
ties of  their  living  are  much  lessened.  The  kind  of  treatment 
that  would  be  considered  all  right  for  apple  trees  might  be  fatal 
to  evergreens,  as  they  are  much  more  susceptible  to  injury  from 
drying. 

In  addition  to  the  above  precautions  to  be  taken  when  mov- 
ing evergreens,  it  is  desirable  to  shorten  back  the  limbs  about 
one-third,  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  roots.  Of  course  this 
shortening  should  not  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  disfigure  the 
tree,  but,  when  the  roots  are  in  any  way  severely  mutilated,  the 
whole  top  makes  more  of  a  draft  on  them  for  moisture  than  the 
roots  can  supply.  This  pruning  is  not  so  necessary  in  the  case 
of  young  seedling  evergreens  or  nursery-grown  trees  that  have 
been  recently  transplanted,  for  when  they  are  moved  their  root 
systems  are  not  seriously  injured. 

Very  Small  Evergreens  and  Other  Small  Plants  are 
often  set  in  trenches  made  with  a  spade,  as  shown  in  figure  16. 
For  this  method  the  soil  must  be  loose,  and  yet  sufficiently  com- 
pact so  that  it  can  be  cut  with  a  spade  and  not  crumble  before 
the  plants  can  be  set  out.  The  beds  are  made  about  six  feet 
wide,  and  a  board  of  this  length  and  six  inches  wide  should  be 
used.  The  soil  is  thrown  out  with  a  spade  (A)  to  the  depth  of 
about  six  inches,  but  no  wider  than  necessary  to  just  take  in  the 
roots.  The  plants  are  then  placed  in  position  by  hand,  and  a 
little  soil  pushed  against  them  to  hold  them  in  place.  (B)  The 
trench  is  then  half  filled  and  the  soil  firmly  compacted  by -the  feet. 
The  remainder  of  the  soil  is  then  put  in  and  leveled  off,  the 


96 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


board  is  changed  to  the  other  side  of  the  row  first  planted  and 
the  planting  is  continued  in  the  same  way.  (C  and  D)  Such 
close  planting  as  this  is  only  desirable  when  it  is  intended  to 
give  special  care  to  the  plants,  as  by  shading  or  watering. 
Plants  should  not  remain  more  than  two  or  three  years  in  so 
close  a  bed  before  they  are  transplanted.  When  it  is  desirable 
to  set  out  small  seedlings  in  rows,  instead  of  beds,  a  tight  line 
may  be  used  in  place  of  the  board. 

Heeling  in.  This  term  is  applied  to  the  temporary  covering 
of  the  roots  of  trees  with  earth  to  keep  them  from  drying  out 
after  they  are  dug  and  until  they  are  planted.  If  they  are  to  be 
kept  for  only  a  few  days,  comparatively  little  care  is  needed  in 


Figure  16.  Successive  steps  in  planting  young  evergreen  or  other 
very  small  seedlings,  (a)  Board  in  place  and  trench  partly  opened. 
(b)  Seedlings  in  place  and  partly  covered,  (c)  New  trench  partly 
opened,  (d)  New  trench  with  seedlings  in  place. 


covering;  but  if  they  are  to  be  kept  for  several  weeks,  or  over 
winter,  especially  if  the  weather  is  dry,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  work  the  fine  soil  in  among  the  roots  and  to  pack  it  solid.  A 
good  way  of  doing  this  is  as  follows:  Select  a  dry,  mellow  piece 
of  ground,  and  dig  a  trench  just  large  enough  to  take  in  the 
roots  of  the  trees  when  laid  close  together  in  a  single  row. 
Place  the  trees  or  seedlings  in  this  trench,  in  an  upright  position, 
a  few  at  a  time,  and  cover  the  roots  firmly  and  deeply  with  soil 
taken  from  close  in  front  of  the  first  trench,  thus  making  a  trench 
for  the  next  row.  In  this  section,  if  Maples,  Cherries  and  other 
trees  not  of  the  greatest  hardiness  are  to  remain  heeled  in  all 
winter,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  bend  the  tops  down  and  cover  with 


PRUNING. 


97 


earth.  This  is  only  necessary  for  winter  protection.  The  neglect 
to  properly  heel  in  nursery  stock  as  soon  as  it  is  received  is 
undoubtedly  a  frequent  cause  of  failure. 

Trees  and  cuttings  will   sometimes  get   so   dry  in  shipment 
that  the  bark  shrivels.     In  such  cases  the  best  treatment  is  to 


Figure  17.     Heeling-in.     Various  stages  of  the  operation: 
ith  roots  covered;  row  bent  down  and  the  tops  covered. 


Row  of  trees 


bury  them  entirely  for  a  few  days,  which  will  often  enable  them 
to  recover.  Soaking  in  water  will  answer  the  same  purpose,  but 
unless  very  carefully  done  is  likely  to  injure  the  wood. 


PRUNING. 

Pruning  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  and  yet  be 
done  sufficiently  to  secure  the  effect  desired.  If  it  is  begun  early 
in  the  life  of  a  tree  no  large  branches  need  ever  be  removed,  the 
most  desirable  pruning  being  the  directing  of  the  growth  by 
pinching  off  the  buds  that  would  develop  into  undesirable 
branches;  but  this  is  impracticable  on  a  large  scale,  and  for  this 
reason,  in  ordinary  practice,  it  is  often  necessary  to  do  more 
extensive  pruning. 

The  Purpose  in  Pruning  Trees  is  to  give  them  forms 
that  are  desirable  for  the  purpose  intended.  For  example,  a  tree 
for  the  lawn  or  windbreak  may  be  most  desirable  when  covered 
with  branches  even  down  to  the  ground,  while  street  trees  should 
have  a  trunk  free  from  branches  for  eight  or  ten  feet  from  the 
ground.  Many  of  the  evergreens,  and  some  other  trees  used  for 
7 


98  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

ornament,'  naturally  take  on  so  regular  and  desirable  a  form  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  prune  them,  except  perhaps  to  pinch  or  cut 
off  an  extra  leading  shoot  that  is  likely  to  make  a  forked  top, 
while  the  White  Elm,  Soft  Maple,  and  others  need  occasional 
pruning  to  remove  or  shorten  awkward  branches,  at  least  while 
the  tree  is  young  and  growing  rapidly. 

The  Proper  Time  for  Pruning  is  determined  by  the 
effect  of  the  operation  upon  the  health  of  the  tree.  Dead 
branches  may  be  safely  removed  at  any  season.  The  removal  of 
live  branches  during  the  growing  season  lessens  the  leaf  sur- 
face, and  hence  checks  growth.  Pruning  when  the  tree  is  dor- 
mant results  in  a  more  vigorous  growth  in  the  remaining 
branches.  Wounds  made  by  pruning  just  as  trees  are  starting 
into  growth  do  not  heal  over  as  readily  as  those  made  earlier 
in  the  spring,  or  during  the  period  of  active  growth  in  June. 
Wounds  made  in  autumn  or  early  winter  generally  heal  over 
well,  but  are  more  likely  to  cause  bad  injuries  than  if  made  at 
the  close  of  the  winter.  These  considerations  and  practical  expe- 
rience have  brought  about  the  following  conclusions  as  to  the 
best  time  for  pruning: 

I/arge  Branches  are  Most  Safely  Removed  during  the 
latter  part  of  winter,  before  growth  starts.  Small  branches  may 
be  safely  removed  at  this  time,  or  during  the  growing  season, 
preferably  about  the  middle  of  June;  but  such  very  hardy  trees 
as  the  Elm,  Ash,  Boxelder,  White  Willow  and  Cottonwood 
may  be  safely  pruned  at  any  time  in  autumn,  winter  or  spring, 
while  the  Mountain  Ash,  Apple,  Plum  and  Wild  Cherry  are  lia- 
ble to  injury  if  pruned  at  any  but  the  most  favorable  seasons. 

Among  the  Directions  to  be  Followed  in  Good  Prun- 
ing are  the  following: 

(1)  Do  not  cut  off  a  single  branch  unless  you  have  a  good 
idea  of  what  you  wish  to  accomplish  and  the  probable  effect  of  so 
doing  on  the  tree;    better  not  prune  at  all  than  to  do  it  without 
considering  the  consequences. 

(2)  Avoid  doing  very  much  pruning  at  one  time,  especially  on 
small  street  trees,  which,  if  they  have  all  their  branches  removed 
from  the  trunks  to  their  final  height,  are  likely  to  make  too  much 
growth  at  the  top  for  the  trunk  to  support  well  in  high  winds. 
A  better  way  is  to  remove  a  part  of  the  lower  branches  and 


PRUNING.  99 

shorten  back  in  summer  those  that  are  to  be  removed  later;  by 
such  treatment  a  large  part  of  the  strength  of  the  tree  goes  into 
the  top  without  increasing  the  size  of  the  lower  branches,  which 
may  be  removed  in  a  year  or  two  without  injury  to  the  tree. 

(3)  After  pruning  paint  the  wounds  with  good  white  lead 
paint,  to  keep  the  wood  from  decaying  and  the  injuries  from  thus 
becoming  permanent.     This  is  not  so  necessary  on  very  hardy 
trees  as  on  those  that  are  somewhat  tender. 

(4)  Where  branches   rub   together   it  is   generally  best   to 
remove  one  of  them. 

(5)  Where  bad  crotches  are  being  formed  by  the  develop- 
ment of  two  leaders,  severely  check  the  growth  of  one  of  them 
by  shortening  it,   thus  throwing  more   sap   into  the  other  and 
making  it  the  leading  shoot. 

(6)  Prevent  the  formation  of  long  side  branches  by  shorten- 
ing those  that  are  liable  to  become  too  long.     This  is  especially 
desirable  with  the  Soft  Maple,   which  has  a  tendency  to  form 
long  branches  that  are  likely  to  break  off  unless  occasionally 
pruned. 

(7)  Where   trees   have   lost   their   leaders,    prune   so   as   to 
develop  one  of  the  side  branches  into  a  leading  shoot.     This  the 
tree  always  attempts  to  do  itself,  but  a  little  judicious  pruning 
will  greatly  aid  it. 

(8)  Every  species   of  tree   and   shrub   has   its   own   natural 
form,  and  in  pruning  do  not  try  to  make  all  of  them  of  one. 
shape.     Study  the  natural  form  of  each  kind  of  tree,  and  encour- 
age the  development  of  this  form. 

(9)  When  trees  are  full  of  frost  the  wood  cracks  very  easily; 
therefore  do  not  prune  in  very  cold  weather,   for  bad  wounds 
may  then  be  easily  formed. 

Treatment  of  Crooked  Trees.  It  is  common  to  have  some 
trees  in  the  nursery  that  are  of  vigorous,  healthy  growth,  but  so 
crooked  as  to  be  nearly  worthless.  The  proper  treatment  for 
most  of  our  shade  trees  when  in  this  condition  in  the  nursery, 
if  anything  is  to  be  made  of  them,  is  to  cut  them  off  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  early  in  the  spring,  and  then  select  one  of  the 
good,  strong  sprouts  that  come  from  the  roots  of  each  tree, 
train  it  into  a  straight  stem,  and  cut  away  the  others.  Treated  in 
this  way  well-formed  trees  may  soon  be  grown.  Such  treatment 
may  also  be  desirable  with  small  street  trees  that  have  their  stems 


100  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

hopelessly  injured.  However,  trees  that  to  the  novice  may  seem 
hopelessly  crooked  may  only  have  crookr  in  them  that  will  be 
outgrown  in  a  few  years. 

STREET  TREES. 

Success  with  ^Street  Trees  is  perhaps  more  dependent  on 
good  soil  about  the  roots  than  on  any  other  one  factor.  If  the 
land  is  so  very  sandy  or  gravelly  as  to  be  subject  to  drouth,  at 
least  two  cubic  yards  (two  full  two-horse  loads)  should  be  taken 
from  where  each  tree  is  to  be  planted  and  the  same  amount  of 
good  clay  or  loam  substituted  for  it.  If  in  subsequent  years  the 
trees  outgrow  the  limits  of  the  material  supplied,  more  of  it 
should  be  added,  and  if  this  consists  largely  of  stable  manure, 
so  much  the  better,  provided  it  does  not  come  into  contact  with 
the  roots  of  the  trees.  It  is  important  to  do  this  work  thor- 
oughly, for  one  tree  well  planted  is  better  than  a  dozen  poorly 
set  out. 

Kinds  of  Trees.  The  best  trees  for  street  planting  in  this 
section  are  the  White  Elm,  Hackberry,  Green  Ash,  Basswood, 
Boxelder  and  Soft  Maple.  All  of  these  trees  do  well  in  good 
soil,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  Soft  Maple  they  all  do  well 
in  rather  inferior  land.  Evergreens  may  sometimes  be  used  to 
advantage  along  narrow  drives,  but  they  are  seldom  desirable  as 
street  trees.  The  trees  planted  should  be  about  two  to  four 
inches  in  diameter  near  the  ground,  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  and 
of  thrifty  growth.  Much  larger  trees  are  sometimes  set  out,  but 
it  is  not  advisable,  as  a  rule,  to  plant  those  that  are  over  four 
inches  in  diameter.  Smaller  trees  are  often  planted  and  do  well 
if  properly  cared  for,  but  need  more  attention  in  directing  their 
growth  than  those  that  are  larger.  But  small,  thrifty  trees  are 
much  better  for  street  planting  than  large  stunted  trees.  In  all 
cases  it  is  more  important  to  have  plenty  of  good  roots  than  a 
large  top,  as  a  top  can  soon  be  developed  if  the  roots  are  good. 

Distance  Apart.  The  distance  between  trees  depends  on 
the  kind  planted  and  the  quality  of  the  land.  On  rich  land  in 
this  section  the  trees  named  should  be  put  forty  feet  apart,  in 
fairly  good  soil  about  thirty  feet,  and  in  poor  soil  twenty  feet 
apart.  This  gives  sufficient  room  for  good  development,  but 
where  a  quick  effect  is  wanted  it  is  a  good  plan  to  set  the  trees 


STREET  ;TRKKS.  mi 

much  thicker  than  this,  and  use  Cottonwood,  Willow  or  similar 
fast-growing  trees  to  alternate  with  one  of  the  kinds  named  as 
desirable,  with  the  expectation  of  cutting  out  the  less  valuable 
when  it  shall  have  commenced  to  crowd  the  more  desirable 
kinds. 

Planting.  Provided  the  soil  is  in  the  proper  condition,  the 
next  consideration  is  the  proper  planting  of  the  tree.  The  prep- 
aration for  this  should  consist  in  digging  a  hole  of  sufficient  size 
to  take  in  the  roots  without  crowding.  If  the  subsoil  is  very 
solid  clay,  it  should  be  thoroughly  loosened  up,  and  where  prac- 
ticable it  is  a  good  plan  to  dig  a  trench  to  the  loose  soil  over  a 
water  pipe  or  sewer,  for  by  this  means  the  roots  get  into  loose 
soil,  and  drainage  is  secure,  which  is  often  much  needed  on  such 
land.  Sometimes  a  very  stiff  hardpan  can  be  broken  up  to 
advantage  by  exploding  a  small  dynamite  cartridge  in  a  deep 
hole  made  with  a  crowbar. 

Before  Setting  the  tree,  it  should  have  all  broken  and 
dead  roots  cut  off.  It  should  then  be  set  an  inch  or  two  deeper 
than  it  had  been  growing,  the  discoloration  above  the  roots  indi- 
cating the  depth  at  which  it  had  stood.  If,  however,  good  drain- 
age cannot  be  secured,  the  tree  can  be  planted  less  deeply,  and 
then  have  a  mound  made  around  it.  Fill  in  about  the  roots 
slowly,  being  careful  (should  the  tree  have  a  great  number  of 
fibrous  roots)  to  work  the  earth  well  in  among  them  and  under 
the  butt  of  the  tree.  Fine  soil,  free  from  large  stones,  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  Pack  the  soil  in  firmly,  if  reasonably  dry, 
with  the  heels,  or,  better  still,  with  a  rammer,  making  it  as  solid 
as  possible  around  the  roots.  The  object  in  doing  this  is  to 
leave  no  air  spaces  about  them.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  put 
water  into  the  hole  before  the  tree  is  set,  but  it  may  be  put  in 
when  the  roots  are  just  covered  and  allowed  to  soak  away  before 
the  remaining  soil  is  put  in.  As  a  rule,  however,  little  is  gained 
by  watering  if  the  trees  have  not  leafed  out  and  the  moist  soil  is 
packed  firmly  around  the  roots.  Water  is  most  needed  after 
growth  starts. 

Mulching.  Newly  planted  street  trees  are  much  helped  by 
a  mulch  of  straw,  hay  or  well-rotted  manure.  The  latter  is  best, 
as  it  also  furnishes  plant  food,  but  hot  manure  is  liable  to  injure 
the  trunk  if  piled  against  it.  These  materials  prevent  the  soil 


102; 


FORESTRY. 


from  drying  out,  and  this  is  especially  beneficial  if  the  trees  are 
artificially  watered. 

Watering  should  be  done  thoroughly  or  not  at  all.  One 
good  watering  should  keep  the  ground  moist  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  in  the  driest  weather  we  have,  if  the  land  is  heavily 
-mulched  when  the  water  is  applied.  For  a  good  watering  in  a 
dry  time  about  one  barrel  of  water  should  be  given  to  each  street 
or  lawn  tree.  A  hollow  should  be  made  around  the  tree  and 
covered  with  mulch  before  the  water  is  applied.  This  same 
amount  of  water  might  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  pail- 
fuls  a  day,  and  not  be  of  the  least  benefit  to  the  tree,  if  applied  to 
the  bare  surface  of  the  ground. 


Figure  18.    Soft  Maple         Figure  19.    Soft  Maple  Figure  20.    Soft  Maple 

not  pruned  since  it  was     once    pruned     showing  several     times     pruned 

close  head  that    is    not  preserving  a   main  cen- 

liable  to  break  down.    A  tral  axis.    A  good  form. 


planted  out.     liable   to 
break  in  its  crotches  at 


any  time.    A  bad  form,      good  form. 


The  Pruning  of  Street  Trees  at  the  time  they  are  set 
out  is  an  important  matter.  If  the  trees  are  very  tall  and  slen- 
der,-it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  them  off  at  about  ten  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  trim  off  all  side  branches,  as  shown  in  figure  21. 
For  trees  that  have  been  pulled  from  the  woods  this  is  generally 
the  best  treatment,  while  for  nursery-grown  trees  that  have  had 
plenty  of  room  to  develop  a  good  top  it  may  sometimes  be  best 
to  trim  so  as  to  leave  part  of  the  top.  If  the  trees  are  trimmed 
to  bare  poles  before  planting,  some  little  pruning  will  be 


STREET  TREES. 


103 


required   each  season   for  a   number  of  years   to   develop  good 

tops,  while  if  they  had  well  formed  tops  in  the  nursery  and  were 
shortened  back  at  planting  time  much  less 
attention  will  be  necessary. 

In  a  row  of  Elms  or  other  trees  there 
will  often  be  found  peculiar  individual 
shapes.  Some  of  the  trees  will  take 
on  desirable  forms,  while  others  will  be 
spreading  and  awkward,  and  perhaps  have 
a  tendency  to  crack  in  the  branches.  In 
some  cases  a  little  extra  pruning  will  bring 
such  unfortunates  into  shape,  but  often  they 
are  incorrigible,  and  are  best  replaced  by 
other  trees  with  better  forms. 

Protection  should  always  be  given  street 
trees  as  soon  as  they  are  set  out,  and  this 
•should  consist  of  something  that  will  pro- 
tect them  from  sun-scald,  gnawing  of  horses 
and  whittling  by  thoughtless  boys.     A  good 
temporary   cover   is   afforded  by  wrapping 
r-~  the    trunk    with    gunny    sacking    or   similar 

Figure  21.    Elm  street  material,  but  a  more  desirable  protection  is 

:ree    properly    trimmed  afforded  by  a  slatted  wooden  frame  or  box 

for  planting  out.  for 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
FOREST  PROTECTION. 

INJURIES  TO  TREES. 

The  causes  of  injury  to  tree  growth  are  man}'  and  various, 
some  affecting  principally  the  cultivated  trees  in  windbreaks  and 
shelterbelts,  and  others  affecting  the  forest  plantations  and  large 
areas  of  timber.  Some  injure  or  destroy  the  trees  or  tree  seeds, 
and  others  do  damage  to  the  land  on  which  they  grow. 

Saw-Flies  and  Tent-Caterpillars.  At  present  perhaps  the 
most  serious  injuries  to  cultivated  trees  in  this  section  result 
from  the  neglect  to  take  precautions  against  leaf-eating  insects. 
such  as  saw-flies  and  tent-caterpillars.  These  injuries  may  be 

largely  prevented  by 
the  use  of  Paris  Green, 
in  a  liquid  form,  ap- 
plied by  means  of  a 
force  pump,  using  the 
solutions  from  a  barrel 
carried  in  a  wagon  or 
on  a  stone  boat.  An 
ordinary  spraying  noz- 
zle should  be  used, 
with  a  sufficient  length 
of  hose  to  reach  up 
into  the  tree.  In  order 
to  reach  the  tops  of  the 
trees  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  have  a  raised 
platform  on  the  wagon, 
and  to  attach  the  noz- 

Figure  22.     Elm   tree   that   has  been  zle  to  the  end  of  a  lonS 

planted  five  years  and  was  pruned  to  bamboo  pole.      In  most 

a  bare  pole  when  set  out.  ^     groyes     thjs     jg 

practicable,  but  with  very  high  trees  it  is  very  difficult  if  not 
entirely  impracticable. 


INJURIES  TO  TREES. 


105 


Borers  and  I/ice.  These  sometimes  cause  serious  injury, 
but  it  is  seldom  practicable  to  combat  them  successfully.  It  is 
generally  better  to  avoid  them  by  planting  the  kinds  that  are 
least  subject  to  injury  from  their  attacks.  Where  lice  are  injuri- 
ous, kerosene  emulsion  or  strong  tobacco  water  are  good  reme- 
dies. In  the  case  of  small  trees  that  can  be  easily  inclosed  in  a 
tent,  the  best  remedy  is  tobacco  smoke. 


Figure  23.  White  Willow  windbreak  seriously  injured  Iby  successive 
attacks  of  saw-fly  larvse.  A  common  source  of  injury  to  willows. 

Mice  and  Rabbits.  Seedlings  and  small  trees  of  some 
kinds  are  liable  to  injury  from  rodents,  such  as  mice  and  rab- 
bits, which  gnaw  the  bark  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
perhaps  girdle  the  tree.  They  are  most  likely  to  do  this  when 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  for  this  furnishes  them  with 
a  protection  under  which  they  can  do  their  mischief  without 
fear  of  being  molested.  In  the  case  of  small  seedlings  such 
injuries  may  be  largely  prevented  by  plowing  a  furrow  or  set- 
ting boards  on  edge  around  the  seed  bed.  If,  after  each  snow- 
fall, the  snow  is  trodden  down  so  as  to  make  a  solid  path 
between  the  seedlings  and  the  grass  or  woodland  whence  the 
mice  come,  they  will  be  kept  out,  as  they  will  not  try  to  work 
through  the  solid  snow.  Seedlings  that  are  badly  girdled  in 
winter  should  be  cut  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to  encour- 
age sprouts  from  the  roots.  To  prevent  the  gnawing  of  larger 
trees,  paint  the  trunks  with  a  cement  or  lime  wash  made  rather 


106  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

thick  and  containing  Paris  Green  in  the  proportion  of  one  table- 
spoonful  of  Paris  Green  to  a  pailful  of  the  wash.  If  skim  milk 
is  used  in  mixing  the  wash,  instead  of  water,  the  material  sticks 
better.  Trees  that  are  gnawed  badly  may  often  be  saved  by  coat- 
ing the  injured  surface  with  grafting  wax,  blue  clay,  or  other 
similar  material,  soon  after  the  damage  is  done,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  seasoning  of  the  wood,  and  thus  give  it  a  chance  to  heal 
over.  Where  the  injury  is  close  to  the  ground  it  should  be  cov- 
ered with  earth. 

The  Pocket  Gopher.  Trees  are  sometimes  injured  by 
pocket  gophers  eating  the  roots.  Trapping  or  poisoning  may  be 
resorted  to,  or  bisulphide  of  carbon  may  be  used  to  suffocate 
them  in  their  burrows. 

Birds.  Most  of  our  birds  are  helpful  in  various  ways,  such 
as  distributing  seeds  and  in  destroying  injurious  insects,  and 
such  small  injurious  animals  as  mice  and  gophers.  They  also 
add  to  the  beauty  of  our  woods  and  fields,  and  to  our  pleasure 
and  recreation.  But  some  kinds  are  provokingly  injurious  by 
eating  the  seeds  we  wish  to  gather,  or  by  digging  up  newly-sown 
seeds.  Where  they  are  troublesome  on  seed  beds,  they  may  be 
kept  away  by  covering  the  bed  with  wire  netting,  which  will  also 
serve  to  keep  away  other  animals.  If  only  birds  are  trouble- 
some, mosquito  netting  may  be  used,  or  the  seeds  may  be  given 
a  light  coating  of  red  lead  and  dried  in  land  plaster  or  flour 
before  sowing. 

The  sap-sucker  does  considerable  injury  to  some  trees  by 
making  holes  in  the  bark  for  the  purpose  of  securing  insects 
which  go  there  to  feed  on  the  sap.  They  are  sometimes  so  very 
injurious  that  it  is  necessary  to  destroy  them.  The  Apple,  Box- 
elder,  Maple,  and  most  other  trees,  are  subject  to  their  injuries. 

Cattle.  The  pasturing  of  cows,  horses,  sheep  and  other  ani- 
mals in  the  woodlands  is  generally  a  poor  practice,  as  these  ani- 
mals browse  off  many  of  the  young  seedlings,  especially  those  of 
deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  Oak,  Basswood,  Cherry  and 
others,  though  they  seldom  eat  coniferous  trees.  They  also  com- 
pact the  ground,  and  destroy  many  small  seedlings  by  their  con- 
tinued tramping,  especially  when  present  in  large  numbers.  This 
is  especially  true  of  sheep  on  the  Western  forest  reserves.  Deer, 
moose,  elk  and  other  similar  animals  are  likewise  injurious  in 


INJURIES  TO  TREES. 


107 


forests,  and  when  abundant  may  do  much  damage,  though  on 
account  of  their  comparatively  small  number  they  do  but  slight 
injury. 

Severe  Winters.  These  may  injure  many  kinds  of  young 
seedlings,  which  when  two  or  three  years  old  will  be  perfectly 
hardy.  Seedlings  of  such  kinds  should  be  dug  at  the  end  of  the 
first. season's  growth,  and  be  heeled  in  over  winter,  or  protected 
by  a  mulch  or  earth  covering  in  winter. 

Alternate  Freezing  and  Thawing.  Seedlings  are  often 
thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and 


Figure  24.  HEAVING  OUT  BY  FROST,  (a)  Tree  in 
natural  position.  (&)  Drawn  up  by  alternate  freezing 
and  thawing. 

in  this  way  have  their  roots  broken.  This  is  most  likely  to  hap- 
pen where  the  ground  is  bare;  if  covered  with  leaves  or  grass, 
or  shaded  in  other  ways,  this  seldom  happens.  The  best  pre- 
ventive is  to  mulch  the  surface  soil  with  leaves  or  other  simi- 
lar material,  but  as  mice  generally  like  to  live  in  such  places  poi- 
son should  be  used.  It  should  be  placed  under  the  mulch,  in  tin 


108  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

cans  laid  on  their  sides,  so  they  may  be  readily  found  in  spring 
and  will  not  be  liable  to  poison  the  birds.  When  seedlings  are 
thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  frost  they  should  be  pushed  back 
and  have  the  earth  pressed  against  them  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  thawed  in  the  spring. 

I/ate  Spring  Frosts  are  common  in  the  low  lands  of  this 
section.  They  injure  the  trees  by  killing  the  new  spring  growth 
after  it  has  started  several  inches.  A  large  number  of  trees  are 
seriously  injured  in  this  way,  and  are  classed  as  frost  tender 
trees,  and  those  that  are  not  liable  to  this  injury  are  termed 
frost  hardy  trees.  Among  conifers  the  spruces  and  balsams 
are  much  injured  by  late  spring  frosts,  while  our  pines  and  the 
Tamarack,  Red  Cedar  and  Arborvitae  are  seldom  if  ever  injured 
in  this  way.  Deciduous  trees  recover  from  such  injuries  more 
quickly  than  evergreens.  Among  the  deciduous  trees  most  lia- 
ble to  injury  from  this  cause  are  the  Ash,  Mulberry,  Oak,  Maple, 
Basswood,  Black  Walnut,  Butternut  and  Boxelder,  though  they 
do  not  all  suffer  in  the  same  degree.  Among  those  that  are  not 
sensitive  to  late  frosts  are  the  Elm,  Willow,  Poplar,  Birch,  Hack- 
berry,  Wild  Black  Cherry  and  Mountain  Ash. 

On  account  of  this  liability  to  injury  from  late  frosts,  it  is 
customary  to  study  the  probability  of  damage  from  this  cause  in 
given  locations,  and  to  plant  accordingly.  It  will  often  be  found 
that  in  certain  low  spots  there  is  greater  liability  to  late  frosts, 
while  there  is  very  little  injury  from  this  cause  on  the  higher 
lands.  It  is  customary  among  European  foresters  to  protect 
young  seedlings  of  some  kinds,  particularly  Beech,  from  late 
frosts  until  they  get  up  off  the  ground.  For  this  purpose  Birch 
twenty  or  more  feet  high  are  encouraged  at  intervals  of  thirty  or 
forty  feet,  and  the  frost  tender  plants,  such  as  Beech  and  Spruce, 
are  set  out  between.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the 
Birch,  which  is  frost  hardy,  quite  successfully  protects  the  frost 
tender  trees  below  it.  After  the  frost  tender  trees  are  well  off 
the  ground,  as  ten  or. fifteen  feet  high,  there  is  comparatively  lit- 
tle danger  from  this  source  of  injury,  and  the  Birch  is  removed. 

Sleet  Storms  occasionally  do  much  damage  by  breaking  the 
limbs.  Little  can  be  done  to  relieve  the  trees,  but  preventive 
measures  may  be  taken.  If  no  large  crotches  are  allowed  to 
form  in  trees,  and  growth  kept  as  near  as  possible  to  one  cen- 
tral shaft,  or  the  longer  branches  shortened  so  as  they  will  not 


INJURIES  TO  TREES. 


109 


exert  too  great  a  leverage,  the  losses  may  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. Trees  having  brittle  wood  or  weak  crotches,  as  the  Soft 
Maple,  are  much  more  liable  to  this  injury  than  those  with 
tough  wood,  as  the  willows,  oaks  and  elms,  and  need  more 
pruning  on  this  account.  Evergreens  are  likely  to  be  broken 


Figure   25.     Trees   heavily  loaded   with   ice   after  a   sleet   storm. 

by  heavy  snows  that  freeze  on  the  leaves.  This  may  be  pre- 
vented on  lawn  and  shade  trees  by  shaking  the  snow  off  from 
them  before  it  freezes. 

Frost  Cracks  are  a  rather  infrequent  injury  caused  by  the 
cracking  of  trees  from  center  to  outside,  due  to  uneven  contrac- 
tion in  very  cold  weather.  It  is  generally  accompanied  by  a 
loud  report.  Such  cracks  are  often  eight  or  ten  feet  long,  and 
occasionally  longer.  They  generally  close  up  again  when  the 
wood  thaws  out,  and  during  the  following  summer  grow  over. 


110 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


only  to  burst  open  again  the  next  winter.  This  alternate  burst- 
ing open  and  growing  over  may  continue  for  many  years,  until 
very  conspicuous  and  peculiar  wounds  are  formed.  In  such 
cracks  insects  and  rot-producing  fungi  find  favorable  lodging 
places,  and  as  a  result  trees  are  seriously  injured,  and  are  liable 
to  decay  in  the  trunk.  There  are  no  practical  remedies  for  such 
injuries. 

Wind.  Injuries  from  wind  are  common  where  thinning  is 
done  to  a  great  extent  at  one  time  about  shallow  rooted  trees, 
such  as  Spruce  growing  on  moist  soil. 
These  injuries  can  be  avoided  only  by 
thinning  gradually.  In  many  such 
cases,  on  timber  lands,  thinning  is  im- 
practicable, and  it  is  then  best  to  cut  all 
the  merchantable  timber,  for  if  left  it  is 
sure  to  be  blown  down. 

On  our  prairies,  where  the  soil  is 
light  and  easily  moved  by  the  wind,  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  have  young  seed- 
ling trees  seriously  injured  by  the  blow- 
ing away  4of  the  soil  around  the  roots, 
which  often  leaves  them  uncovered  for 
three'  or  more  inches.  This  injury 
usually  takes  place  in  the  spring,  and 
may  be  almost  entirely  prevented  by 
seeding  the  land  to  oats  about  the  mid- 
dle of  July,  at  the  time  of  the  last 
cultivation.  Sown  at  this  season  the 
oats  form  a  good  sod  that  serves  to 
hold  the  soil  in  place  until  spring, 
when  it  is  easily  broken  up  by  cultiva- 
tion, but  even  then  the  roots  prevent 
the  blowing  away  of  the  soil.  Occa- 
sional strips  of  grass  are  also  a  pre- 
ventive of  this  injury,  or  mulching  may 
be  resorted  to. 

Snow  Crust.  The  settling  of  a 
snow  crust  that  has  formed  on  the  top 
of  deep  snow  drifts  may  cause  injury  to 
young  trees  by  stripping  off  their 
branches  and  breaking  the  stems.  It 


INJURIES  TO  TREES. 


Ill 


may  be  prevented  by  breaking  up  the  crust  or  by  thinly  scat- 
tering over  the  snow  some  sand,  ashes  or  other  material  that 
will  absorb  the  sun's  heat  and  cause  the  crust  to  melt  before  the 
snow  underneath  melts.  This  injury  seldom  occurs  except 
under  drifts,  and  a  little  good  judgment  in  selecting  the  loca- 
tion and  arranging  the  windbreak  so  as  to  prevent  drifts  may 
obviate  this  source  of  injury. 

Drouth.  Injuries  from  drouth  may  be  prevented  to  a  great 
extent  by  constant  cultivation,  but  where  this  cannot  be  done 
mulching  is  a  good  substitute.  Attention  to  thinning  at  the 
proper  time  so  as  not  to  get  the  soil  filled  with  roots  will  also 


Figure  28.     Section  of  Trunk  of 
Sun-scalded      Basswood.       Showing 
dead  bark  and  amount  of  wood  de- 
cayed.     The    top    and    roots    of   the 
tree    from    which    this    section    was 
cut    were    perfectly    healthy    at    the 
time    when    the   trunk   broke   off   at 
the  sun-scald. 
Figure  27.     Trunk  of 
Soft     Maple    badly     sun- 
scalded. 

help  to  prevent  injury  from  drouth.  Willow  windbreaks  can  be 
grown  without  any  cultivation,  after  being  once  well  established, 
in  the  driest  portion  of  Minnesota,  if  they  are  kept  mulched  with 
straw  or  litter  for  six  feet  on  each  side.  Mulching  also  prevents 
injury  from  severe  freezing  of  the  roots. 


112  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Sun-scald.  Nearly  all  of  our  cultivated  trees  may  be  injured 
by  sun-scald.  This  occurs,  almost  without  exception,  on  the 
southwest  side  of  unprotected  trees  of  Hard  and  Soft  Maple, 
Basswood,  Boxelder,  Black  Walnut,  etc.  Oaks  and  all  other 
trees  are  occasionally  affected.  It  never  occurs  when  the  trees 
are  sufficiently  close  together  to  shade  their  trunks,  and  for  this 
reason  the  growth  of  shrubs  and  low  branching  trees  should  be 
encouraged  on  the  south  and  west  sides  of  groves  where  they 
do  not  crowd  the  principal  kinds.  Street  trees  liable  to  tlr's 
injury  may  be  protected  by  burlap  sacking,  straw,  or  other  simi- 
lar material.  When  injuries  from  sun-scald  occur,  the  loose  bark 
should  be  cut  off  down  to  the  live  growth  and  the  wood  coated 
with  paint,  to  prevent  its  seasoning,  or  the  wound  wrapped  in 
cloth.  Trees  inclined  to  the  northeast  are  most  liable  to  sun- 
scald,  because  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  the  trunk  more  nearly 
perpendicular. 

Broken  Branches  and  Decay.  Large  wounds  are  some- 
limes  formed  by  the  breaking  down  of  a  branch,  or  by  decay, 
which  may  have  started  in  a  wound  made  by  pruning.  In  such 
cases  the  broken  and  decayed  wood  should  be  cleared  away,  and 
the  exposed  surfaces  treated  with  a  very  heavy  coat  of  white 
lead  paint,  grafting  wax,  or  other  material  that  will  keep  out 
water  and  disease.  If  the  wound  is  very  large,  or  forms  a  hole 
in  which  water  is  likely  to  stand,  it  should  be  cleaned  and  painted 
as  recommended,  and  then  coveied  with  a  sheet  of  zinc,  care- 
fully tacked  on,  and  the  joints  closed  with  grafting  wax  to  keep 
out  water. 

Fungus  Diseases  are  quite  common  sources  of  injury  to 
trees  of  all  kinds,  including  those  of  our  forests.  They  attack 
the  foliage,  trunk  and  roots.  Occasionally  very  serious  losses 
occur  here  from  those  that  cause  the  trunks  to  rot.  They  are 
generally  most  numerous  in  sections  where  there  is  not  much  of 
a  circulation  of  air.  This  subject  is  too  large  for  a  detailed 
account  of  any  of  them  here,  and  only  one  is  referred  to,  which, 
although  not  very  common,  is  occasionally  quite  injurious.  This 
is  known  as  the  toadstool  root  fungus,  Agaricus  melleus.  This 
fungus  lives  upon  the  roots  of  pines,  spruces,  firs,  etc.,  and  occa- 
sionally kills  them.  At  one  stage  of  its  growth  it  lives  on  the 
decaying  wood  of  oaks  and  similar  trees. 


INJURIES  TO  TREES. 


113 


FOREST  FIRES. 

Forest  Fires  are  the  one  great  cause  of  injuries  to  forests 
in  this  section.  All  other  causes  of  injury  are  very  slight  in 
comparison  to  it,  and  could  this  one  cause  be  removed  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  the  natural  renewal  of  our  timber  lands  would 
be  sufficient  to  maintain  the  timber  industries  of  Minnesota  for 
very  many  years  to  come. 

Fires  in  this  state  have  destroyed  large  areas  of  pine  log  tim- 
ber before  it  could  be  made  accessible  to  market.  It  is  undoubt- 


Figure  29.    ~Agaricus  melleus,  a  fungus  that  is  occasionally  very  injurious 
to  trees  by  destroying  their  roots,     (a  )     A  fruiting  portion  of  the  fungus 


edly  true  that  in  this  section  of  the  country  more  pine  timber  has 
been  destroyed  by  fire  than  the  lumbermen  have  ever  cut. 

On  account  of  this  great  danger  to  pine  timber,  and  on 
account  of  high  taxes,  the  lumbermen  have  been  discouraged 
from  holding  their  pine  lands  for  a  second  growth,  but  prefer  to 
cut  every  tree  that  can  be  made  into  salable  lumber  and  then 
abandon  the  land.  But  even  under  such  conditions  it  occasion- 
ally happens  that  the  land  is  not  burned  over,  or  only  slightly 
burned,  for  a  number  of  years,  when  it  will  generally  produce  a 
8 


114  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

good  second  cutting.  Some  land' in  this  state  that  was  first  cut 
in  the  early  days  of  the  logging  industry,  when  it  was  customary 
to  cut  nothing  but  that  which  would  make  a  ten-inch  log,  have 
been  logged  two  or  three  times  since,  and  with  a  good  profit. 

Since  fires  render  most  of  the  cut-over  lands  in  this  state 
entirely  non-productive,  and  since  the  annual  increase  on  the 
trees  that  should  grow  on  such  land  is  at  least  185  feet  board 
measure  per  acre,  it  is  plain  that  the  loss  to  the  people  of  the 
state  on  the  6,000,000  or  more  acres  of  cut-over  lands  is  very 
large. 

Forest  fires  not  only  destroy  a  very  great  amount  of  prop- 
erty each  year,  but  they  occasionally  cause  great  loss  of  life.  In 
the  Hinckley  fire  of  1894  (which  was  entirely  the  result  of  ignor- 
ance and  neglect)  there  is  known  to  have  been  424  lives  lost, 
besides  a  large  amount  of  property,  and  occasionally  in  other 
years  settlers  have  had  to  flee  for  their  lives,  and  leave  their 
houses  and  crops  to  be  burned. 

It  is  impossible  for  fires  to  run  over  any  forest  land  without 
doing  great  injury.  The  amount  of  damage  done  by  them  is 
difficult  to  estimate,  and  varies  much  according  to  the  time  of 
year,  the  age  and  condition  of  the  trees,  the  soil  and  the  severity 
of  the  fire. 

Forest  fires  are  sometimes  grouped  into  the  three  following 
classes:  (i)  Underground  Fires,  that  do  not  show  much  on 
the  surface,  but  which  destroy  the  roots  of  trees  and  greatly 
injure  the  soil.  (2)  Surface  Fires,  which  burn  the  leaves  and 
grass  in  the  woods,  and  do  much  damage  by  destroying  the  for- 
est floor  and  killing  the  young  seedlings.  (3)  Crown  Fires, 
which  run  in  the  crowns  of  the  trees,  and  when  once  started  arc 
almost  irresistible.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  worst  forms,  and  is 
generally  accompanied  by  surface,  and  often  by  underground, 
fires. 

The  Killing  of  Mature  Trees  by  any  of  these  three  kinds 
of  fires  entails  -but  a  slight  loss  comparatively  to  the  timber, 
providing  it  is  accessible  to  market,  as  the  trees  can  be  cut  the 
following  winter.  But  fires  that  kill  the  mature  growth  gener- 
ally do  great  damage  by  killing  the  young  growth  and  destroy- 
ing the  forest  floor.  Timber  that  is  allowed  to  stand  more  than 
one  or  two  years  after  being  killed  by  fire  generally  suffers  much 


FOREST  FIRES.  i!5 

from  insects  and  fungus  diseases.  This  is  most  evident  in  the 
case  of  White  Pine,  Birch,  Foplar  and  similar  soft  woods,  but 
even  hard  woods  are  injured  by  insects  if  allowed  to  stand  long 
after  being  killed. 

The  Killing  of  Half-Grown  Trees  by  forest  fires  causes 
a  loss  that  amounts  not  only  to  the  value  of  the  timber  .trees  but 
to  the  value  of  the  seeding  and  shading  trees  and  the  forest 
floor.  The  value  of  the  trees  alone  in  this  case  is  not  a  fair 
standard  by  which  to  measure  the  loss,  since  at  this  stage  of 
their  growth  they  are  making  their  most  rapid  increase/  and 
their  value  should  be  computed  as  the  amount  upon  which  the 
increase  is  paying  a  good  interest.  For  instance,  the  Division 
of  Forestry  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  found  land 
that  was  well  stocked  with  young  White  Pine  (six  inches  in 
diameter  and  fifty  feet  high)  that  could  be  bought  for  about  one 
dollar  per  acre,  and  yet  the  annual  increase  on  the  trees  would 
pay  five  per  cent  on  a  valuation  of  $100,000  for  the  next  twenty 
years.  The  reason  why  such  a  state  of  affairs  exists  is  that  there 
is  such  great  danger  from  fire  that  the  investment  fails  to  com- 
mand the  money  of  careful  investors. 

The  Destruction  of  the  Forest  Floor  by  fire  greatly  les- 
sens the  probability  of  an  immediate  renewal  of  valuable  tree 
growth  upon  the  land,  and  therefore  is  one  of  the  greatest 
injuries  to  forests.  The  value  of  the  forest  floor  can  hardly  be 
estimated,  but  the  expense  that  would  be  necessary  after  a  fire 
to  produce  conditions  as  favorable  to  the  seeding  of  our  timber 
lands  as  those  found  in  unburned  forests  would  probably  be  not 
less  than  twenty-five  dollars  per  acre. 

I/ight  Fires,  which  repeatedly  run  over  the  ground,  and 
which  by  the  casual  observer  are  thought  to  be  of  no  impor- 
tance, often  destroy  the  seeds  in  the  surface  soil  and  the  young 
tree  seedlings,  besides  injuring  the  forest  flo'or,  and  unless  such 
fires  are  prevented  it  is  impossible  to  secure  a  good  growth  of 
timber  on  any  land.  The  fires  that  burn  over  the  land  shortly 
after  it  has  been  logged,  and  which  feed  on  the  tops  and  other 
waste  parts  of  the  trees,  generally  destroy  a  large  number  of 
young  seedling  trees,  perhaps  all  of  them,  so  that  in  order  to 
secure  a  new  growth  seeds  must  be  brought  from  a  distance. 
Owing  to  the  great  heat  developed  by  such  fires  in  dry  weather, 


116 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


they  are  unusually  destructive,  and  leave  very  little  humus  in  the 
top  soil.  For  this  reason  land  that  has  been  burned  over  in  this 
way  is  a  long  time  in  recovering  from  its  injuries.  Besides  the 
injuries  already  cited,  all  forest  fires  kill  or  drive  out  much  of 
the  game  in  our  forests. 

Spring  Fires  are  very  injurious  to  trees,  and  especially  ten- 
der seedlings,  for  trees  in  the  spring  of  the  year  are  full  of  sap, 
and  can  endure  but  little  heat. 

Summer  and  Autumn  Fires  generally  run  deep  into  the 
grotfnd,  and  if  the  soil  is  very  dry  and  of  a  peaty  nature  burn  off 


Figure  30.    A   Fire   Fall.    Roots  burned   off  and  trees   blown   down  in 
great  confusion. 

the  roots  of  the  trees.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the  trees  are 
blown  down  in  great  confusion,  and  form  what  are  known  as 
"fire  falls."  Where  a  thick  growth  falls  it  forms  an  almost 
impassable  barrier,  which  remains  in  this  state  until  decay  and 
repeated  fires,  extending  over  a  long  series  of  years,  finally 
destroy  the  trees,  and  perhaps  get  the  land  into  condition  for  a 
new  growth. 


FOREST  FIRES.  117 

Causes  of  Forest  Fires.  The  only  natural  causes  of  forest 
fires  are  friction  and  lightning,  both  of  which  occasionally  start 
fires  in  dead  trees,  but  as  such  fires  are  most  likely  to  be  set 
during  a  rain  they  seldom  do  much  damage.  Practically  all  the 
injurious  forest  fires  that  have  devastated  the  forested  part  of 
this  section  have  resulted  indirectly  either  from  a  lack  of  appre- 
ciation of  the  damage  done  by  them  or  from  carelessness  and 
ignorance.  In  the  disastrous  Hinckley  fire  of  1894  the  damage 
was  done  by  a  large  fire  formed  by  the  combination  of  several 
small  fires  that  were  allowed  to  smoulder  in  the  swamps  near 
Hinckley  for  a  week  or  more,  which  when  fanned  by  a  dry  hot 
wind  attained  an  irresistible  energy.  If  we  had  had  a  fire  law 
that  could  have  been  properly  enforced  at  that  time,  or  if  the 
people  near  Hinckley  had  been  aware  of  their  danger,  that  great 
fire,  »with  its  attendant  great  loss  of  life  and  property,  need  not 
have  occurred. 

Fires  Often  Escape  from  Settlers  when  they  are  clearing 
land,  and  are  sometimes  started  by  them  to  make  pasture  for 
their  stock.  The  carele'ss  use  of  fire  by  the  hunters,  prospectors 
and  others  who  camp  in  the  forest  and  leave  their  camp  fires 
unextinguished  is  another  common  cause  of  fires.  Railroads  set 
many  fires,  and  should  be  required  to  more  rigidly  conform  to 
the  law  requiring  them  to  use  spark  arresters  and  to  keep  their 
right  of  way  free  from  combustible  material. 

The  moral  effect  of  a  properly  enforced  forest  fire  law  is  not 
only  very  great  in  restraining  the  careless,  but  especially  in  edu- 
cating law-abiding  citizens  in  the  idea  that  there  is  value  in 
young  seedlings  and  timber  trees. 

The  Prevention  of  Forest  Fires  will  be  most  certainly 
accomplished  by  educating  our  people  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
amount  of  damage  done  by  them.  In  some  counties  in  this  state 
it  is  impossible  to  enforce  the  law  against  setting  forest  fires, 
owing  to  the  belief  that  fires  are  a  good  thing  for  their  sections 
in  destroying  tree  growth  and  bringing  the  land  into  condition 
to  be  easily  taken  up  by  settlers.  There  is  some  truth  in  this 
claim,  but,  since  the  fires  destroy  all  increase  on  the  land  they 
sweep  over,  a  large  amount  of  it  is  thereby  rendered  entirely 
unproductive  long  before  settlers  are  ready  for  it,  while  in  the 
meantime  it  might  be  producing  a  crop  of  valuable  timber. 


118  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Then  again,  it  is  the  greatest  injustice  to  allow  one  person  to 
burn  the  property  of  another,  which  right  is  practically  claimed 
by  those  who  advocate  the  unrestricted  use  of  fire. 

With  a  Desire  in  the  Minds  of  People  to  keep  out 
forest  fires,  there  are  many  precautions  that  could  be  taken  that 
would  lessen  the  chances  of  their  starting,  and  when  started 
would  aid  in  controlling  them.  The  first  thing  is  a  good  fire 
law,  such  as  now  stands  in  Minnesota,  which  recognizes  the  fact 
that  the  state  and  county  should  protect  forest  property  from 
fire  for  the  same  reason  that  a  town  or  city  protects  the  property 
of  its  citizens  from  fire.  This  law  puts  one-third  the  expense 
of  enforcing  it  on  the  state  and  the  other  two-thirds  on  the 
county.  The  chief  reasons  why  a  part  of  this  burden  should  be 
borne  by  the  state  and  not  by  the  counties  alone  are  that  fires 
spread  from  one  county  to  another,  and  the  state  must  be  organ- 
ized to  extinguish  such  fires  when  they  have  once  started,  since 
it  is  the  only  competent  authority  that  can  do  this.  Then  again, 
the  State  of  Minnesota  owns,  or  will  own,  when  surveys  have 
been  completed,  about  3,000,000  acres  of  land  scattered  through 
the  forested  area,  besides  possibly  nearly  as  great  an  area  that 
has  been  bid  in  by  the  state  for  delinquent  taxes.  A  large  part 
of  the  land  the  state  owns  has  a  valuable  growth  of  trees  on  it. 
much  of  which  is  liable  to  injury  or  destruction  by  fire  at  any 
time,  and  the  state  can  well  afford  to  provide  protection  for  it. 

Firebreaks,  in  the  shape  of  clean  earth  roads,  plowed  strips, 
etc.,  are  effective  against  ordinary  forest  fires.  Very  often  by 
clearing  up  and  widening  the  course  of  a  brook  a  very  efficient 
firebreak  may  be  made  which  will  supplement  other  firebreaks. 
It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  fairly  satisfactory  and  very 
cheap  firebreaks  may  be  made  in  rough  stump  land  by  fencing 
off  a  strip  about  three  rods  wide  and  pasturing  it  with  sheep 
which  will  kill  out  all  the  brush  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two. 
The  sheep  do  this  most  effectually  if  the  land  is  rather  over 
stocked,  and  they  receive  a  little  grain  to  make  up  for  their  lack 
of  pasturage.  Figure  31  shows  a  firebreak  or  lane  on  Le 
Grande  Dune  in  France. 

The  Burning  of  Trash  left  on  the  ground  at  the  time  of 
logging  is  recommended  by  some  of  our  best  woodmen  as  a 
means  of  doing  away  with  one  of  the  sources  of  our  worst  forest 
fires.  This  trash  can  be  burned  early  in  the  spring,  or  at  other 


FOREST  FIRES. 


119 


Figure  31.     Firebreak  on  a  great  sand  dune  in  France,  whi 
successfully  covered  with  Pine, 


120  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

times  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  fire  is  not  likely  to  get  beyond 
control.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  known  that  there  are 
many  seedlings  on  such  land  that  would  be  seriously  injured  or 
destroyed  by  such  treatment.  It  is  also  known  that  under  the 
trash  left  after  logging  are  generally  found  about  the  best  condi- 
tions for  pine  seeds  to  start  and  for  the  seedlings  to  grow,  so 
that  some  of  our  best  authorities  condemn  the  practice.  It 
would  seem,  however,  that  on  account  of  the  great  liability  of 
fires  starting  in  such  trash,  prudence  would  generally  advocate 
the  burning  of  it  while  it  could  be  controlled,  but  this  should  be 
done  so  as  to  cause  as  little  injury  as  possible  to  new  growth, 
and  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  save  seeding  trees.  The 
cost  of  such  work  has  been  urged  against  it,  but  this  has  often 
been  overestimated,  and  it  seems  evident  that  it  is  entirely  prac- 
ticable. 

The  Methods  of  Fighting  Surface  Fires  are  various,  and 
their  use  depends  on  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  must 
be  done.  Where  possible  the  plowing  o'f  a  firebreak  a  rod  or 
more  wide  is  most  satisfactory,  but  this  is  seldom  practicable 
within  our  wooded  areas.  Back  Firing  is  generally  the  most 
successful  method  of  making  a  firebreak.  When  this  is  to  be 
practiced,  a  convenient  place  to  fight  fire  should  be  chosen,  at 
some  distance  ahead  of  the  main  fire,  where  the  back  fire  should 
be  started,  after  every  precaution  has  been  taken  to  prevent  its 
getting  beyond  control.  Where  a  supply  of  water  can  be 
obtained,  surface  fires  can  be  most  easily  put  out  by  applying  it 
through  a  common  sprinkling  pot,  with  a  good  rose  sprinkler 
on  it.  This  is  especially  effective  where  fire  is  running  through 
grass,  and  those  who  have  never  tried  it  will  generally  be  sur- 
prised at  the  effectiveness  of  this  method.  Where  the  fire  is 
burning  several  inches  of  leaves  a  small  strip  should  be  cleaned 
of  them  before  applying  the  water.  Gunny  sacks  or  similar 
material,  wet  in  water,  make  very  effective  weapons  with  which 
to  fight  fire.  Where  the  soil  is  sandy,  sand  is  often  the  best 
material  obtainable  for  putting  out  fires. 

Underground  Fires,  such  as  occur  in  bogs  and  other  soils 
containing  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter,  when  once  started, 
are  often  very  hard  to  subdue,  owing  to  their  great  depth,  and, 
where  not  looked  after,  sometimes  burn  for  a  year  or  more 
unless  we  have  very  heavy  rains.  They  often  cause  great  injury 


NOTABLE  FOREST  FIRES.  121 

by  burning  out  all  organic  matter  from  the  soil  and  leaving  it 
in  poor  shape  for  crops,  though  a  rather  severe  but  not  excessive 
firing  of  bogs  may  do  much  to  clear  the  land  of  roots  and  put 
it  in  shape  for  a  good  hay  meadow.  Then,  too,  they  often  so 
reduce  the  level  of  the  land  by  burning  out  the  organic  matter 
as  to  make  it  wet  and  of  no  value  for  agricultural  crops.  If 
such  fires  are  attacked  soon  after  they  secure  a  foothold  in  the 
soil  they  are  seldom  very  difficult  to  put  out.  Where  not  deep 
in  the  ground  or  of  very  great  extent  the  burning  peat  may  be 
,dug  out  and  watered,  but  this  is  often  impracticable  on  account 
of  the  heat.  In  this  latter  case  a  ditch  should  be  dug  around  the 
fire  as  close  to  it  as  practicable  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  reach 
standing  water  or  the  subsoil.  The  fire  should  then  be  carefully 
watched  to  see  that  it  does  not  get  beyond  the  ditch.  It  is  sel- 
dom that  sufficient  water  can  be  put  on  a  large  bog  fire  to  put 
it  out,  on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  water  that  dry  peat 
will  absorb  and  the  protective  covering  of  ashes  and  peat  usually 
found  over  a  bog  fire. 

NOTABLE  FOREST  FIRES. 

Among  the  worst  forest  fires  which  have  occurred  on  this 
continent  are  the  following: 

Miramichi  Fire  of  1825.  This  occurred  near  Newcastle, 
on  the  Miramichi  river,  in  New  Brunswick.  In  nine  hours  it 
had  destroyed  a  belt  of  forest  eighty  miles  long  and  twenty-five 
.miles  wide,  and  almost  every  living  thing  was  killed  on  that 
amount  of  territory;  even  the  fish  were  destroyed  in  the  smaller 
lakes  and  streams.  It  is  estimated  that  the  loss  from  this  fire, 
not  including  the  value  of  the  timber  burned,  was  $300,000.  One 
hundred  and  sixty  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  nearly  1,000  head 
of  stock  were  killed. 

The  Peshtigo  Fire  occurred  in  October,  1871.  This  burned 
an  area  of  over  2,000  square  miles  in  Wisconsin.  Between  1,100 
and  1,500  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  property  to  the  amount  of 
many  millions  of  dollars  was  destroyed. 

Very  serious  fires  have  occurred  in  Michigan  from  time  to 
time,  in  one  of  which,  in  about  1871,  a  strip  of  territory  forty 
miles  wide  and  180  miles  long,  extending  across  the  central  part 
of  the  state  from  Lake  Michigan  to  Lake  Huron,  was  devastated. 


122  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

More  than  ten  million  dollars  worth  of  timber  was  burned,  and 
several  hundred  persons  perished. 

The  Hinckley  Fire  occurred  Sept.  i.  1894,  and  was  the 
most  destructive  fire  of  recent  years.  Hinckley,  Minnesota,  and 
several  other  towns  were  destroyed,  about  500  lives  were  lost, 
and  more  than  2,000  persons  were  left  destitute.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  loss  in  property  amounted  to  about  $25,000,000. 
The  loss  of  life  from  this  fire  would  have  been  much  more  than 
stated  had  it  not  been  for  the  fact  that  the  railroad  companies 
ran  special  trains  to  carry  the  settlers  away  from  the  flames. 
This  fire  was  wholly  unnecessary,  and  could  easily  have  been 
put  out  in  its  earlier  stages.  For  two  weeks  previous  to  the 
breaking  out  of  this  fire  into  an  uncontrollable  mass  of  flame 
small  fires  had  been  raging  in  swamps  about  Hinckley,  and  filled 
the  town  with  dense  smoke,  and  it  was  only  whe'n  these  became 
united  under  the  direction  of  a  hot  south  wind  that  it  passed 
beyond  control.  Had  the  present  forest  fire  law  of  Minnesota 
been  in  force  at  that  time  this  fire  would  undoubtedly  have  been 
prevented. 

Forest  and  Pasture.  When  forests  are  used  as  pasture, 
the  cattle  will  eat  the  foliage  of  many  species,  provided  it  is 
within  their  reach.  They  also  trample  on  the  young  seedlings, 
and  destroy  them  in  this  way.  As  a  result,  all  good  foresters  are 
opposed  to  the  pasturing  of  cattle  in  woodlands.  Especially  is 
this  the  case  where  the  trees  are  of  the  broad-leaved  species, 
which  are  preferred  by  cattle.  However,  in  the  case  of  well 
established  forests,  in  which  there  is  no  special  desire  for  a 
renewal  of  growth  from  seed,  no  great  injury  can  come  from 
moderate  pasturing.  Cattle  are  rigidly  excluded  from  most 
European  forests,  but  in  some  of  the  more  remote  districts, 
where  timber  is  still  quite  cheap,  it  is  customary  to  pasture  for- 
ests. Of  course,  where  the  range  is  large  and  not  fully  stocked, 
the  injury  is  much  less  than  where  the  range  is  crowded.  This 
combination  of  forest  and.  pasture  has  led  to  the  use  of  several 
methods  of  protecting  young  seedlings  against  cattle,  among  the 
first  of  which  might  be  mentioned  the  planting  of  seedling 
conifers  between  the  buttresses  of  old  stumps,  where  it  would  be 
very  unlikely  that  the  cattle  would  step  on  them.  It  is  also 
practiced  to  protect  the  seedlings  by  driving  two  strong  stakes 


FOREST  AND  PASTURE. 


123 


in  the  ground  near  them,  and  occasionally  over  a  considerable 
acreage  the  cattle  and  deer  may  be  fenced  out  until  the  trees  are 
so  large  that  they  will  not  injure  them.  Under  some  conditions 
the  eating  off  of  the  leaves  from  the  sides  of  the  trunk  of  sap- 
lings would  prove  a  desirable  pruning.  It  is  very  certain  that 
while  forests  and  pastures  cannot  often  be  very  well  combined 
together,  yet  it  is  possible  to  combine  them  under  some  condi- 
tions. It  is  quite  common  to  see  the  new  growth  of  spruce 
and  fir  in  European  forests  protected  from  the  browsing  of  deer 
by  covering  the  tips  of  the  young  shoots  with  a  little  coal  tar 


Figure  32.     Sand  dune  near  Seven  Mile  Beach,  New  Jersey. 

or  common  cotton  batting.  The  cotton  batting  seems  to  be 
yery  disagreeable  to  the  deer,  and  to  afford  about  as  good  pro- 
tection as  the  coal  tar.  It  is,  however,  rather  more  difficult  to 
put  on. 

Sand  Dunes.  In  a  few  places  in  this  state,  and  in  various 
parts  of  this  country,  notably  along  portions  of  the  seashore  and 
along  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  there  are  quite  considera- 
ble sand  dunes.  By  this  is  meant  the  drifting  sands  which  are 
easily  blown  about  after  the  vegetation  which  has  held  them  in 


124  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

place  has  been  broken.  Along  the  shore  of  New  Jersey,  at 
Seven  Mile  Beach,  there  is  a  dune  which  is  traveling  inward  at 
the  rate  of  perhaps  fifteen  feet  per  year,  and  is  destroying  quite 
a  growth  of  forest  trees.  This  dune  is  thirty  or  forty  feet  high, 
— as  high  as  the  trees, — and  as  the  prevailing  strong  winds  are 
from  the  east,  its  tendency  is  always  inland.  There  are  other 
notable  sand  dunes  at  Provincetown,  on  Cape  Cod,  Mass.,  which 
have  been  fixed  in  place  by  judicious  planting. 

In  some  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  Gascony,  France,  dunes 
have  destroyed  an  immense  amount  of  territory  in  former  ages. 
Whole  villages  have  at  times  been  gradually  wiped  out  by  the 
encroaching  dunes.  The  sand  is  so  fine  and  so  easily  moved 
by  the  wind  that  there  is  very  little  chance  for  any  vegetation  to 
grow  on  it,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  times  that  methods  have 
been  successfully  adopted  to  hold  it  in  place. 

The  Most  Improved  Way  of  Checking  Sand  Dunes 
is  to  first  make  a  windbreak  of  boards  or  poles  which  may  be 
pulled  up  as  the  sand  drifts  up  onto  them.  These  are  used  tem- 
porarily to  afford  an  opportunity  of  getting  vegetable  growth 
started.  As  a  rule  the  vegetable  growth  which  has  been  most 
successfully  used  for  fixing  sand  dunes  is  that  of  plants  that 
grow  naturally  in  such  places.  Such  species  are  generally  those 
that  throw  out  long  creeping  stems  at  or  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  also  such  as  are  capable  of  healthy  growth 
even  when  half  buried  by  encroaching  sand.  We  have  a  number 
of  native  species  that  are  adapted  to  this  purpose,  among  which 
are  the  Sand  Reed,  the  Sand  Cherry,  several  varieties  of  Wil- 
lows, and  Quack  Grass.  Where  these  once  gain  a  foothold  upon 
a  sand  dune  they  hold  it  better  than  would  be  possible  by  arti- 
ficial means.  In  protecting  such  land  it  is  generally  best  to  dig 
up  clumps  of  these  grasses,  or  use  long  willow  cuttings,  and  set 
them  in  place  in  a  wet  time. 

In  some  sections  along  the  Great  Lakes  the  sand  is  now  held 
in  place  by  the  natural  covering  of  weeds  and  shrubs,  but  should 
this  be  removed  and  the  land  broken  up  there  would  be  much 
trouble  in  getting  it  again  fixed  in  place.  Such  is  the  case  along 
the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 


CHAPTER  IX, 

RATE  OF  INCREASE  IN  TIMBER. 

The  Rate  of  Increase  on  Timber  Trees  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  and  age  of  the  trees  and  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  growing.  Most  of  the  pine  trees  cut  for  log  tim- 
ber in  this  state  have  been  upwards  of  100  years  old,  and  some  of 
the  White  and  Norway  Pine  that  has  been  cut  was  over  300 
years  old.  Perhaps  the  largest  White  Pine  ever  cut  in  this  state 
was  scaled  by  H.  B.  Ayres.  The  tree  was  253  years  old,  meas- 
ured forty-eight  inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump,  and  yielded 
4,050  feet  board  measure  of  log  timber.  The  most  rapidly  grown 
trees  recorded  in  this  state  were:  Norway  Pine  100  years  old, 
thirty  inches  on  the  stump,  yielding  1,050  feet  board  measure; 
White  Pine,  106  years  old,  twenty-seven  inches  on  the  stump, 
yielding  1,050  feet  board  measure,  and  White  Pine  108  years  old, 
thirty-two  inches  on  the  stump,  yielding  1,450  board  measure. 
The  largest  recorded  acre  yield  of  White  Pine  in  Minnesota  was 
near  Carlton.  The  full  yield  of  this  acre  was  111,050  feet  board 
measure,  and  after  deducting  for  rot  and  crooks  94,264  feet  of 
sound  timber  remained.  The  average  yield  of  White  Pine  is 
much  below  this,  and  large  areas  have  been  cut  that  did  not  yield 
over  5,000  feet  board  measure  per  acre. 

Marketable  White  and  Norway  Pine  may  be  grown  in 
about  thirty  years  under  the  best  conditions  in  this  section,  and 
at  this  age  will  probably  be  about  eight  inches  in  diameter  and 
forty  feet  high.  But  such  trees  are  then  growing  very  fast,  and 
as  the  approximate  increase  in  volume  of  the  tree  is  as  the  square 
of  the  proportionate  increase  in  diameter  and  the  waste  in  work- 
ing greatly  decreases  with  the  size  of  the  trees,  the  cutting  of 
them  at  such  an  early  age  would  be  at  a  loss  of  future  profits. 
Such  trees  have  very  little,  if  any,  heart  wood,  and  yet  this  kind 
of  timber  is  being  grown  and  marketed  in  many  of  the  Eastern  / 
States.  In  fact,  there  is  very  little  heart  to  any  of  the  pine  now 
cut  in  the  New  England  States,  as  it  is  practically  all  young 


126  ELEMENTARY  EORESTRY. 

second  growth,  and  is  generally  marketed  about  as  soon  as  it 
attains  sufficient  size  to  be  salable,  without  regard  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  then  making  its  most  rapid  growth. 

From  careful  observation,  the  Experiment  Station  of  the 
University  of  Minnesota  estimates  that  on  land  adapted  to  the 
White  Pine,  with  a  thick  growth  of  this  kind  of  trees  eight  inches 
in  diameter,  the  annual  increase  should  be  about  fifty  cubic  feet, 
or  500  feet  board  measure,  per  acre.  In  some  cases  this  rate  of 
increase  has  been  more  than  doubled,  but  under  ordinary  good 
conditions  not  over  one-third  as  much  increase  need  be  ex- 
pected. 

The  Thickness  of  the  Annual  Rings  on  trees  varies  with 
the  conditions  under  which  the  trees  make  their  growth,  and  is 
therefore  a  good  index  to  these  conditions.  Trees  that  are 
crowded  so  that  they  make  a  very  rapid  upward  growth  form 
very  thin  rings,  and  when  this  upward  growth  ceases  owing  to 
the  removal  or  suppression  of  surrounding  trees  much  thicker 
rings  are  formed.  Trees  that  are  grown  in  the  open  produce 
throughout  their  lives  thick  annual  rings,  which  vary  in  thick- 
ness according  to  varying  climatic  conditions.  Those  of  the 
White  Pine  vary  in  thickness  from  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  or 
less  in  trees  that  are  severely  crowded  to  one-third  of  an  inch 
in  open-grown  trees  in  good  soil.  Willows  sometimes  have 
annual  rings  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide. 

The  I/ife  History  of  a  Mature  Tree  in  virgin  forest 
may  often  be  determined  by  a  study  of  the  annual  rings,  in  con- 
nection with  the  environment  of  the  tree.  The  Division  of  For- 
estry of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  has  made  several 
studies  of  this  kind,  among  which  are  the  following: 

Figure  33  shows  a  section  of  a  White  Pine  which  made  its 
growth  under  varying  conditions.  This  tree  started  into  growth 
under  Birch  and  Aspen,  and  when  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
years  old  was  nearly  suppressed  by  them.  Overcoming  them 
when  thirty  years  old  it  pushed  upward  rapidly,  until  about  its 
fiftieth  year.  It  was  then  set  free  by  fire,  which  checked  its 
upward  growth  for  about  twenty-five  years,  when,  owing  to  the 
crowding  of  surrounding  trees,  it  began  to  again  increase  rap- 
idly in  height.  When  eighty-four  years  old  fire  killed  the  sur- 
rounding trees  and  set  this  one  entirely  free,  in  which  condition 


LIFE  HISTORY  OF  A  TREE. 


127 


it  remained  until  it  was  cut  eighteen  years  later.  When  cut  it 
measured  fifty-five  feet  high,  thirteen  inches  through  at  the  base 
and  contained  29.95  cubic  feet  of  timber.  During  the  last  ten 
years  it  had  made  an  average  annual  increase  of  1.5  cubic  feet. 

This  study  brought  out  the  following  facts:  (i)  While 
rapid  upward  growth  is  being  made  the  lateral  accretions  are 
slight.  (2)  Large  accretions  accompany  full  leafage.  (3) 


Figure  33.     White   Pine  crowded  and  then  open  grown. 


After  the  surrounding  growth  is  killed,  the  tree  begins  to 
strengthen  the  portion  which  receives  the  greatest  strain  by  wind, 
that  is,  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk.  (4)  In  approaching  the 
top  of  the  tree  the  accretions  are  found  to  diminish  as  each  live 
branch  is  passed. 

Figure  34  shows  a  section  of  a  White  Pine  that  was  entirely 
open  grown.  This  tree  was  cut  when  fifty-six  years  old,  and 
measured  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump,  eight- inches 
at  twenty-five  feet  above  the  stump  and  forty-eight  feet  in  height. 
The  volume  of  the  stem  when  cut  was  28.85  cubic  feet;  the 


128  ELEMENTARY  EORESTRY. 

accretion   during   the    last   ten    years    was    12.52    feet,    which    is 
equivalent  to  mean  annual  increment  of  1.25  feet. 

As  the  live  branches  of  this  tree  occupied  the  whole  trunk, 
the  timber  was  very  knotty.  A  proper  crowding  would  have 
kept  it  from  forming  large  branches  on  the  lower  trunk,  stimu- 
lated its  upward  growth,  and  prevented  so  large  an  increment 
during  the  early  life  of  the  tree.  But  if,  as  with  the  former  tree, 


Figure  34.     Cross  section  of  White  Pine  open  grown. 

it  had  been  first  crowded  and  then  set  free,  the  best  timber  in  the 
least  time  would  have  been  secured. 

The  Profit  from  an  Investment  in  I/and  that  is  stocked 
with  only  very  small  coniferous  seedlings  is  altogether  too  small 
and  too  remote  to  prove  an  attraction  to  investors  at  present, 
even  were  the  danger  from  fire  entirely  eliminated.  But  there 
is  considerable  land  that  is  now  stocked  with  a  good  growth  of 
young  pine  of  fair  size  that  could  be  bought  and  managed  at  a 
good  profit  if  the  danger  from  fire  could  be  greatly  reduced. 
This  land  in  many  cases  would  not  have  to  be  held  more  than 
ten  or  fifteen  years  to  secure  a  good  profit  on  the  investment, 


PROFITS  IN  FORESTRY. 


129 


after  which  the  profit  might  be  made  nearly  continuous.  The 
rapid  growing  deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  Poplar,  Willow. 
White  and  Yellow  Birch,  Soft  Maple,  Ash,  Red  and  White  Elm, 
Hackberry,  Basswood,  Locust,  Black  Walnut  and  Tamarack, 
may  sometimes  be  planted  and  grown  at  a  profit  on  waste  land 


Figure  35.  Crowded  and  open  grown  Norway  Pine.  Crowded  trees 
form  the  most  good  timber  in  the  shortest  time.  Open  grown  trees  have 
many  side  branches,  and  consequently  form  poor  timber. 

that  is  adapted  to  them,  and  should  there  be  a  stock  of  young 
trees  of  these  kinds  already  on  the  land  it  can  perhaps  be  soon 
made  to  yield  a  revenue  in  the  shape  of  posts  and  fuel,  and  later 
of  timber.  Even  the  slower  growing  deciduous  trees,  such  as 
the  Red,  White  and  Bur  Oak,  Hard  Maple  and  Rock  Elm, 
9 


130  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

increase  very  rapidly  in  good  soil,  and  could  often  be  made  to 
yield  a  good  profit  if  properly  managed.  However,  most  of  the 
hard-wood  lands  of  this  section  are  of  such  good  quality  that 
they  seem  destined  to  be  generally  cleared  for  agriculture  instead 
of  being  kept  for  timber. 

Willow  for  Fuel.  From  a  number  of  careful  estimates  it 
seems  quite  probable  that  good  soil  planted  in  White  Willow 
will  produce  at  the  rate  of  from  four  to  six  cords  of  firewood  per 
acre  per  year.  If,  then,  ten  acres  were  taken  for  this  purpose. 
and  one  acre  cut  over  clean  each  year,  such  amount  of  land 
would  yield  about  fifty  cords  of  fuel  per  annum,  worth  probably 
from  two  dollars  to  three  dollars  per  cord  in  our  prairie  sections. 

In  starting  such  a  woodlot  it  would  be  desirable  to  set  the 
cuttings  two  feet  apart  in  rows  eight  feet  apart,  since  at  this 
distance,  if  cultivated,  they  will  soon  cover  the  land,  and  until 
the  land  is  fully  shaded  cultivation  seems  to  be  necessary  in 
order  to  keep  down  the  weeds  and  to  protect  from  drouth. 
After  the  land  is  well  shaded  no  further  cultivation  will  be 
necessary. 

At  the  end  of  five  or  six  years  some  thinning  should  be  done 
on  all  the  land,  and  in  this  thinning  probably  at  least  half  the 
trees  should  be  removed.  The  remainder  will  soon  fill  up  the 
vacancies,  and  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  years  more  it  should 
be  again  thinned  out,  and  this  should  be  repeated  as  often  as 
they  crowd  one  another  until  the  trees  on  the  land  remain  about 
twelve  feet  apart  each  way,  after  which  the  land  should  be  treated 
as  coppice,  and  since  this  tree  renews  itself  very  quickly  and 
vigorously  from  sprouts,  and  continues  to  do  so  for  a  long 
period  of  years,  it  is  probable  that  such  a  plantation  will  last 
indefinitely. 

Willow  wood  makes  good  summer  fuel,  and  as  a  fence  post, 
when  the  bark  is  removed  and  the  wood  well  cured,  it  is  quite 
satisfactory,  and  will  last  in  the  soil  about  seven  years.  It  is 
also  good  for  poles  when  peeled  and  dried. 

The  Common  Cottonwood  on  very  rich  soil  will  probably 
yield  from  five  to  seven  cords  of  firewood  per  acre  per  year. 


DIAMETER  GROWTH.  131 


DIAMETER   GROWTH   OF   SOME   MINNESOTA   TREES. 


Cottonwood  .  . . 
Norway  Spruce 
Silver  Maple  .  . 
White  Willow  . 

Basswood    

Sugar  Maple  .  . 
White  Elm  .... 
Bur  Oak  . 


inch  in  1.4  years 
inch  in  2.5  years 
inch  in  2.7  years 
inch  in  2.8  years 
inch  in  4.5  years 
inch  in  6.6  years 
inch  in  6.8  years 
inch  in  8.5  years 


The  height  growth  of  Silver  Maple  and  White  Willow  is 
about  two  feet  per  year,  Norway  Spruce  one  foot  per  year.  Bur 
Oak  averaging  thirty  feet  in  height  makes  an  average  growth  of 
about  .55  feet  per  year,  while  the  rate  of  height  growth  of  the 
first  twenty  feet  of  marketable  cordwood  is  about  one  foot  in  1.5 
years.  The  height  growth  of  Cottonwood  varies  from  two  to 
eight  feet  per  year.  A  fifteen-year-old  Cottonwood  will  often 
grow  in  height  three  feet  per  year.  Black  Spruce  has  shown  a 
diameter  growth  of  one  inch  in  14.7  years,  and  a  height  growth 
of  one  foot  in  2.3  years. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FOREST  MENSURATION. 
MEASUREMENT  OF  SINGLE  TREES. 

Trees  which  are  to  be  Cut  May  be  Considered  in  Two 

Classes,  in  the  first  of  which  fall  all  those  which  contain  tim- 
ber material,  and  in  the  second  those  which  are  too  small  to  be 
of  value  for  timber.  The  material  of  the  first  class  is  in  the 
main  part  available  for  timber,  and  in  part  for  firewood,  while 
the  stump,  smaller  limbs  and  leaves  are  waste;  the  material  of 
the  second  class  may  be  used  in  part  for  firewood,  fence  posts, 
etc.  For  timber  purposes  the  cubic  contents  of  the  wood  only 
is  considered,  while  for  firewood  the  bark  is  included  in  the  cal- 
culation, so  that  we  may  measure  part  of  the  tree  without  bark 
and  part  with  bark  on.  For  timber  usually  only  the  main  por- 
tion of  the  trunk  is  considered,  especially  in  coniferous  woods, 
but  for  firewood  all  limbs  that  will  make  a  stick  of  cordwood 
must  be  included.  In  this  discussion  we  will  consider  only  the 
trunks  of  trees,  as  the  volume  of  the  limbs  must  be  determined 
separately,  but  in  the  same  way. 

The  Volume  of  a  Standing  Tree  can  be  gotten  at  only 
roughly,  as  there  is  no  geometric  figure  which  exactly  represents 
the  shape  of  the  trunk,  the  latter  varying  much  under  different 
conditions  of  growth.  The  volume  of  a  paraboloid,  the 
geometric  figure  which  approaches  nearest  to  the  form  of  a 
tree,  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  basal  cross-sectional  area  by 
one-half  the  height.  The  basal  area  of  a  tree  is  taken  at  breast 
height,  to  avoid  the  excessive  swelling  near  the  ground.  Breast 
height  is  usually  considered  as  four  feet  three  inches  above  the 
ground,  at  which  point  the  diameter  is  measured  by  a  pair  of 
calipers  in  inches,  and  the  area  in  square  feet  of  the  correspond- 
ing circle  is  found  in  a  prepared  table  of  such  areas.  The  height 
of  the  tree  may  be  determined  by  triangulation,  in  which  various 
instruments  are  used,  as  the  transit,  the  altimeter,  or  a  mirror 


VOLUME  OF  STANDING  TREE. 


133 


hypsometer.  A  simple  geometrical  method  is  illustrated  in  the 
figure.  A  measuring  rod  is  set  up  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  tree  AB,  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  at  S,  and  the  lines  of 
sight  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  tree  intersect  the  rod  at  a 
and  b.  Then,  by  measuring  the  distances  from  the  observer  to 
the  rod  and  to  the  tree  the  height  is  given  by  the  formula 


SD 

Now,    considering  the  tree   as  a  paraboloid,   its   basal  area 
times  one-half  the  height  will  give  approximately  the  volume. 


Figure   36.     Measuring    the   height    of   a   tree   by   a    simple    geometrical 

method. 


For  example:  A  white  pine  has  a  diameter  at  breast  height  of 
18.7  inches,  and  the  height  of  the  tree  is  eighty-four  feet;  what 
is  the  volume?  By  reference  to  the  table  of  areas  of  circles  the 
area  corresponding  to  a  diameter  of  18.7  inches  is  found  to  be 
1.0072  square  feet.  Multiplying  this  by  one-half  the  height,  the 
approximate  volume  of  the  tree  is  found — 1. 9072X42=80- IO24 
cubic  feet. 

The  Volume  of  a  Standing  Tree  may  be  Obtained 
by  Bmploying  a  Form  Factor  which  h#s  been  previously 
determined  for  that  particular  species  by  the  felling  and  accu- 
rate measurement  of  a  great  many  sample  trees  of  approxi- 


134  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

mately  the  same  dimensions  and  grown  under  the  same  condi- 
tions. The  form  factor  is  expressed  as  a  decimal,  and  is  the  ratio 
of  the  mean  volume  of  the  sample  trees  to  the  volume  of  a  cylin- 
der with  the  same  diameter  as  the  diameter  of  the  mean  sample 
tree  at  breast  height,  and  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  height  of 
the  tree.  For  example:  A  tamarack  measures  6.9  inches  in  diam- 
eter, breast  high,  and  the  height  of  the  tree  is  fifty-one  teet.  Its 
volume  by  accurate  measurement  of  the  felled  tree  is  7.21  cubic 
feet,  and  the  volume  of  a  cylinder  with  a  diameter  of  6.9  inches 
and  a  length  of  fifty-one  feet  is  13.24  cubic  feet.  The  form 
factor,  or  factor  of  shape,  is  therefore  7.21^13.24=:. 54,  and  if 
this  tamarack  represents  the  mean  of  a  large  number  of  trees 
of  approximately  the  same  dimensions,  the  factor  may  be  applied 
to  all  of  them,  or  to  all  trees  of  the  same  size  and  grown  under 
the  same  conditions.  In  the  same  way  factors  are  determined 


Figure  37.    Determining  the  volume  of  a  felled  tree. 

for  all  sizes,  and  tabulated  for  future  use.  In  application  the 
volume  of  a  tree  6.9  inches  in  diameter,  breast  high,  and  fifty- 
one  feet  high  would  be  found  thus:  Volume  of  cylinder  X  form 
factor  equals  volume  of  tree,  or  T3.24X-54=7-2i.  This  method 
gives  a  much  closer  approximation  than  could  be  obtained  by 
using  a  geometric  figure  supposed  to  represent  the  shape  of  the 
tree. 

The  Volume  of  a  Felled  Tree  may  be  determined  more 
accurately.  It  is  considered  in  sections,  or  log  lengths,  and  the 
volume  of  each  section  is  found  by  multiplying  the  middle  cross- 
sectional  area  by  the  length.  The  degree  of  accuracy  of  this 
method  depends  on  the  length  of  the  sections;  the  shorter  they 
are  the  more  accurate  the  result.  The  last  section  at  the  top, 
when  small,  may  be  treated  as  a  cone  whose  volume  is  equal  to 
the  basal  area  times  one-third  its  length;  or  when  large  and 
tapering  off  suddenly  it  may  be  considered  as  a  paraboloid  whose 
volume  is  equal  to  the  basal  area  times  one-half  its  length.  The 


VOLUME  OF  A  FELLED  TREE.  135 

sum  of  the  volumes  of  all  the  sections  will  be  the  volume  of  the 
tree  trunk. 

For  example:  A  tree  is  felled  at  two  feet  above  ground,  and 
calipered  at  the  stump  and  every  four  feet  along  the  trunk  down 
to  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  also  at  two  feet  above  the  last 
measurement.  The  remaining  distance  to  the  top  of  the  tree  is 
twelve  feet.  (See  Figure  37.) 

By  reference  to  the  table  of  areas  of  circles  on  page  136  the 
areas  at  each  point  calipered  are  found: 

Area  at  diameter  of  9  inches 4418 

Area  at  diameter  of  8  inches 3491 

Area  at  diameter  of  7  inches 2673 

Area  at  diameter  of  6  inches 1963 

Area  at  diameter  of  5  inches 1364 

Area  at  diameter  of  4  inches 0873 

Area  at  diameter  of  3  inches 0491 

Sum  of  areas 1.5273 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  areas  are  taken  at  the  middle  of 
a  four-foot  section,  so  multiplying  the  sum  by  four,  the  volume 
of  the  trunk,  from  the  ground  to  a  height  of  28  feet,  is  found 
to  be  6.1092  cubic,  feet.  Treating  the  top  length  of  twelve  feet 
as  a  cone,  its  volume  is  one-third  times  the  basal  area  into  the 
height, — .0341  Xi2-f-3=.  1364  cubic  feet, — which  added  to  the  vol- 
ume of  the  lower  portion  gives  total  volume  of  the  tree  6.2456 
cubic  feet. 


136 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


AREAS   OF   CIRCLES. 


Diameter  II 
Inches. 

Area 
Square  Ft. 

Diameter 
Inches. 

£ 
| 

rt  co 

D  3 

$$ 

Diameter 
Inches. 

£ 
g 

rt  ca 

It 

Diameter 
Inches. 

£ 
£ 

0)  « 

0,  3 

<$ 

Diameter 
Inches. 

Area 
Square  Ft. 

Diameter 
Inches. 

£ 

g 

S§ 

*-  Q. 

<lcn 

0.0 

0.0000 

5.7 

0.1772 

11.4 

0.7089 

17.1 

1.5949 

22.8 

2.8352 

28.5 

4.4301 

0.1 

0.0001 

5.8 

0.1835 

11.5 

0.7214 

17.2 

1.6136 

22.9 

2.8602 

28.6 

4.4612 

0.2 

0.0002 

5.9 

0.1899 

11.6 

0.7340 

17.3 

1.6324 

23.0 

2.8852 

28.7 

4.4925 

0.3 

0.0005 

6.0 

0.1963 

11.7 

0.7467 

17.4 

.6513 

23.1 

2.91U3 

28.8 

4.5238 

0.4 

0.0009 

6.1 

0.2029 

11.8 

0.7595 

17.5 

.6703 

23.2 

2.9356 

28.9 

4.5553 

0.5 

0.0014 

6.2 

0.2096 

11.9 

0.7724 

17.6 

.6894 

23.3 

2.9610 

29.0 

4.5869 

o.e 

0.0020 

6.3 

0.2164 

12.0 

0.7854 

17.7 

.7087 

23.4 

2.9864 

29.1 

4.6186 

0.7 

0.0027 

6.4 

0.2234 

12.1 

0.7986 

17.8 

.7280 

23.5 

3.0120 

29.2 

4.6504 

0.8 

0.0085 

6.5 

0.2304 

12.2 

0.8118 

17.9 

.7475 

23.  K 

3.0377 

29.3 

4.6823 

0.9 

0.0044 

6.6 

0.2376 

12.3 

0.8252 

18.0 

,7671 

23.7 

3.0635 

29.4 

4.7143 

.0 

0.0055 

6.7 

0.2448 

18.4 

0.8387 

18.1 

.78fi8 

23.8 

3.0894 

29.5 

4.7464 

.1 

0.0067 

6.8 

0.2522 

12.5 

0.8523 

18.2 

.8066 

23.9 

3.1154 

29.6 

4.7787 

.2 

0.0079 

6.9 

0.2597 

12.6 

0.8660 

18.3 

.8265 

24.0 

3.1416 

29.7 

4.8110 

.3 

0.0092 

7.0 

0.2673 

12.7 

0.8798 

18.4 

.8465 

24.1 

3.1679 

29.8 

4.8435 

.4 

0.0107 

7.1 

0.2750 

12.8 

0.8937 

18.5 

.8666 

24.2 

3.1942 

29.9 

4.8760 

.5 

0.0123 

7.2 

0.2828 

12.9 

0.9077 

18.6 

.8869 

24.3 

3.2207 

30.0 

4.9U87 

1.6 

0.0140 

7.3 

0.2907 

13.0 

0.9218 

18.7 

.9072 

24.4 

3.2471 

30.1 

4.9415 

1.7 

0.0158 

7.4 

0.2987 

13.1 

0.9360 

18.8 

.9277 

24.5 

3.2748 

30.2 

4.9744 

1.8 

0.0177 

7.5 

0.3068 

13.2 

0.9504 

18.9 

.9482 

24.6 

3.3006 

30.3 

5.0074 

1.9 

0.0197 

7.6 

0.3151 

13.3 

0.9684 

19.0 

.9689 

24.7 

3.3275 

30.4 

5.0405 

2.0 

0.0218 

7.7 

0.3234 

13.4 

0.9794 

19.1 

.9897 

24.8 

3.3545 

30.5 

5.0737 

2.1 

0.0240 

7.8 

o.ms 

13.5 

0.9941 

19.2 

2.0206 

24.9 

3.3816 

30.6 

5.1071 

2.2 

0.0264 

7.9 

0.3404 

13.6 

1.0089 

19.3 

2.0316 

25.0 

3.4088 

30.7 

5.1405 

2.3 

0.0289 

8.0 

0.3491 

13.7 

.0287 

19.4 

2.0527 

25.1 

3.4361 

30.8 

5.1740 

2.4 

0.0314 

8.1 

0.3579 

13.8 

.0387 

19.5 

2.0739 

25.2 

3.4636 

30.9 

5.2077 

2.5 

0.0341 

8.2 

0.3668 

13.9 

.0538 

19.6 

2.0952 

25.3 

3  4911 

31 

5.2414 

2.6 

0.0369 

8.3 

0.3758 

14.0 

.0690 

19.7 

2.1167 

25.4 

3.5188 

32 

5.5851 

2.7 

0.0398 

8.4 

0.3849 

14.1 

.0843 

19.8 

2.1382 

25.5 

3.5465 

33 

5.9396 

2.8 

0-0428 

8.5 

0.3941 

14.2 

.0997 

19.9 

2.1599 

25.6 

3.5744 

34 

6.3050 

2.9 

0.0459 

8.6 

0.4034 

14.3 

.1153 

20.0 

2.1817 

25.7 

3.6024 

35 

6.6813 

3.0 

0.0491 

8.7 

0.4129 

14.4 

.1309 

20.1 

2.2036 

25.8 

3.6305 

36 

7.0686 

3.1 

0.0524 

8.8 

0.4224 

14.5 

.1467 

20.2 

2.2256 

25.9 

3.6587 

37 

7.4667 

3.2 

0.0559 

8  9 

0.4321 

14.6 

.1626 

20.3 

2.2477 

26.0 

3.6870 

38 

7.8758 

3.3 

0.0594 

9.0 

0.4418 

14.7 

.1785 

20.4 

2.2699 

26.1 

3.7154 

39 

8.2958 

3.4 

0.0631 

9.1 

0.4517 

14.8 

.1946 

20.5 

2.2922 

26.2 

3.7439 

40 

8.7266 

3.5 

0.0669 

9.2 

0.4617 

14.9 

.2108 

20.6 

2.3146 

26.3 

3.7725 

41 

9.1684 

3.6 

0.0707 

9.3 

0.4718 

15.0 

.2272 

20.7 

2.3371 

26.4 

3.8013 

42 

9.6211 

3.7 

0.0747 

9.4 

0.4820 

-15.1 

.2437 

20.8 

2.3597 

26.5 

3.8301 

43 

10.0847 

3.8 

0-0788 

9.5 

0.4923 

15.2 

.2602 

20.9 

2.3825 

26.6 

3.8591 

44 

10.5592 

3.9 

0.0830 

9.6 

0.5027 

15.3 

.2768 

21.0 

2.4053 

26.7 

3.8H82 

45 

11.0447 

4.0 

0.0873 

9.7 

0.5132 

15.4 

.2936 

21.1 

2.4283 

26.8 

3.9174 

46 

11.5410 

4.1 

0.0917 

9.8 

0.5238 

15.5 

.3104 

21.2 

2.4514 

26.9 

3.9467 

47 

12.0482 

4.2 

0.0963 

9.9 

0.5345 

15.6 

.3274 

21.3 

2.4745 

27.0 

3.9761 

48 

1^.5664 

4.3 

0.1009 

10.0 

0.5454 

15.7 

.3444 

21.4 

2.4978 

27.1 

4.0056 

49 

13.0954 

4.4 

0.1056 

10.1 

0.5564 

15.8 

.3616 

21.5 

2.5212 

27.2 

.0353 

50 

13.6354 

4.5 

0.1105 

10.2 

0.5675 

15.9 

.3789 

21.6 

2.5447 

27.3 

.0650 

51 

14.1863 

4.6 

0.1154 

10.3 

0.5787 

16.0 

.3963 

21.7 

2  5684 

27.4 

.0948 

52 

14.7480 

4.7 

0.1205 

10.4 

0.5900 

16.1 

.4138 

21.8 

2.5921 

27.5 

.1248 

53 

15.3207 

4.8 

0.1257 

10.5 

0.6014 

16.2 

.4314 

21.9 

2.6159 

27.6 

.  1548 

54 

15.9043 

4.9 

0.1310 

10.6 

0.6129 

16.3 

.4492 

22.0 

2.6398 

27.7 

.1850 

55 

16.4988 

5.0 

0.1364 

10.7 

0.6245 

16.4 

.4670 

22.1 

2.6638 

27.8 

.2152 

56 

17.1042 

5.1 

0.1418 

10.8 

0.6362 

16.5 

.4849 

22.2 

2.6880 

27.9 

.2456 

57 

17.7206 

5.2 

0.1474 

10.9 

0.6481 

16.6 

.5030 

22.3 

2.7122 

28.0 

.2761 

58 

18.3478 

5.3 

0.1632 

11.0 

0.6600 

16.7 

.5212 

22.4 

2.7366 

28.1 

.3067 

59 

18.9859 

5.4 

0.1590 

11.1 

0.6721 

16.8 

.5394 

22.4 

2.7611 

28.2 

.3374 

60 

19.6350 

5.5 

0.1650 

11.2 

0.6842 

16.9 

.5578 

22.6 

2.7857 

28.3 

.3681 

5.6 

0.1710 

11.3 

0.6965 

17.0 

.5763 

22.7 

2.8104 

28.4 

.3991 

MEASUREMENT  OF  GROWING  STOCK.         137 

MEASUREMENT  OF  GROWING  STOCK. 

The  Growing  Stock  of  a  Forest,  or  Volume  of  Stand- 
ing Timber,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  all  the 
trees.  Where  the  tract  is  small  caliper  all  the  trees,  or  if  the 
tract  is  large  caliper  all  the  trees  on  a  small  sample  area  selected 
as  typical  of  the  whole.  If  each  species  is  in  uniform  stand, 
separation  into  species  classes  will  be  sufficient,  but  where  much 
difference  exists  between  individuals  of  the  same  species,  due 
to  conditions  of  growth,  diameter  and  height  classes  in  each 
species  should  be  formed,  and  the  volume  of  each  class  com- 
puted by  itself.  From  the  diameters  obtained  by  calipering  at 
breast  height  the  average  basal  area  is  determined  in  each  class, 
and  trees  of  corresponding  diameters  in  each  class  are  felled  and 
measured  accurately.  The  volume  of  a  sample  tree,  or  the  mean 
volume  of  several  sample  trees,  times  the  number  of  trees,  gives 
the  volume  of  that  class,  and  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  is  the  total  volume  of  timber  on  the  tract.  The 
more  sample  trees  that  are  measured  the  more  accurate  will  be 
the  results,  as  trees  vary  so  much  in  shape  that  quite  different 
volumes  may  be  obtained  for  two  trees  of  the  same  diameter  and 
height. 

A  Sample  Acre  of  Jack  Pine  Shows  the  Following 
Stand: 

Diameter,  Basal 

Breast  Height.                                                                           No.  Trees.  Area. 

2  inches I  .0218 

3  inches 6  .2946 

4  inches 6  -5238 

5  inches 16  2.1824 

6  inches 33  6.4779 

7  inches 40  10.6920 

8  inches 60  20.9460 

9  inches 56  24.7408 

10  inches 46  25.0884 

1 1  inches 29  29. 1400 

12  inches 1 1  8.6394 

13  inches 9  8.2962 

14  inches 2  2.1380 

15  inches 2  2.4544 


317  I4I-6357 


138  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Putting  all  these  trees  in  one  class,  and  dividing  the  total 
basal  area  by  the  number  of  trees,  the  mean  basal  area  is  found 
to  be  .4468,  which  would  correspond  to  a  diameter,  at  breast 
height,  of  nine  inches.  Selecting  a  tree  nine  inches  in  diameter, 
it  is  felled  and  measured  accurately,  and  the  volume  found  to  be 
11.63  cubic  feet.  This  volume  of  the  sample  tree  is  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  trees,  317,  for  the  total  volume  on  the  acre — 
3,686.71  cubic  feet.  Greater  accuracy  may  be  attained  by  taking 
a  sample  tree  for  each  diameter  size,  and  a  forest  may  be  meas- 
ured in  miniature  by  felling  and  measuring  a  proportionate  num- 
per  of  each  diameter,  say  one  per  cent  of  each. 

The  volume  of  a  sample  tree,  or  of  sample  trees,  is  often 
found  by  applying  the  factor  of  shape,  which  has  been  previously 
determined  for  that  particular  species  and  locality. 

The  Conversion  of  Cubic  Feet  Total  Volume  of 
Standing  Timber  into  Feet  Board  Measure  may  be  done 
roughly  by  considering  1,000  cubic  feet  as  the  equivalent  of  from 
4,000  to  7,000  feet  board  measure,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
trees,  young  growths  giving  much  less  than  old  growths. 

The  Conversion  of  Cubic  Feet  Firewood  into  Cords 
is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  factors  which  experience  has 
shown  to  be  practically  accurate.  A  cord  of  wood  piled  up  occu- 
pies 128  cubic  feet  of  space,  but  on  account  of  the  shape  of  the 
sticks  much  of  this  is  air  space,  and  the  actual  wood  content 
much  less  than  128  cubic  feet.  In  Germany  a  cord  has  been 
found  to  contain  83.2  cubic  feet  of  wood.  In  Saxony  Dr. 
Schenck  says  that  eighty-six  cubic  feet  make  a  cord  of  ordinary 
firewood,  and  that  25.73  cubic  feet  of  branch  stuff  will  pile  up  to 
a  cord.  At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  by  actual  meas- 
urement of  round,  straight  sticks,  a  cord  has  been  found  to  con- 
tain as  high  as  102  cubic  feet.  This  factor  of  102  cubic  feet  may 
apply  very  well  to  straight,  well-trimmed  spruce,  tamarack,  etc., 
free  from  knots  and  limbs,  but  will  be  too  high  for  oak  and 
similar  wood,  which  is  inclined  to  be  more  crooked,  and  does  not 
pile  so  closely.  A  cord  of  small  oak  averaging  3.4  inches  in 
diameter  and  ranging  from  1.5  to  7.5  inches,  consisting  of  274 
four-foot  sticks,  measured  69.67  cubic  feet.  Averaging  these  two 
extremes,  85.85  cubic  feet  is  found  in  a  cord  of  mixed  wood,  cor- 
responding very  nearly  to  the  figure  given  by  Dr.  Schenck. 


RATE  OF  GROWTH.  139 


RATE  OF  GROWTH. 

The  Accretion  of  a  Tree  is  the  Increase  in  Wood 
Content  as  the  Result  of  its  Activity  During  the  Grow- 
ing Periods.  The  rate  of  growth  is  indicated  by  the  increase 
in  diameter,  in  height,  or  in  mass,  and  may  be  considered  as 
annual  or  as  periodic.  The  diameter  accretion  is  equal  to  twice 
the  thickness  of  the  annual  rings  for  the  desired  period,  meas- 
ured on  the  average  radius.  The  current  annual  increase  in 
diameter  is  taken  as  the  average  of  several  years  back,  as  five  or 
ten  years.  It  is  determined  by  counting  off  the  required  number 
of  rings  from  the  bark  in,  and  measuring  their  thickness.  Twice 
that  thickness  divided  by  the  number  of  years  in  the  period  will 
give  the  current  annual  diameter  increase. 

The  Height  Accretion  is  Determined  by  counting  and 
measuring  the  annual  cones  which  appear  in  a  longitudinal  sec- 
tion, or  by  measuring  the  length  of  log  between  two  cross  sec- 
tions which  was  grown  in  the  time  indicated  by  the  difference 
in  the  number  of  annual  rings  at  the  two  sections. 

For  example:  A  log  is  fourteen  feet  long.  The  lower  end 
shows  178  annual  rings  and  the  upper  end  150  annual  rings. 
The  difference  in  the  number  of  these  rings  is  28,  or  twenty- 
eight  years  were  required  to  grow  the  fourteen  feet  in  length 
between  the  two  cuts.  The  number  of  annual  rings  at  any  cross 
section  indicates  the  lifetime  of  that  portion  of  the  tree  above  the 
section. 

Mass  Accretion  is  the  Increase  in  Volume  of  the 
Growing  Tree.  The  volume  increase  of  standing  trees  can 
only  be  arrived  at  approximately,  and  is  based  on  the  measure- 
ment of  the  volumes  of  trees  of  different  ages;  the  difference  will 
be  the  increase  for  the  period.  The  increase  in  volume  is  often 
calculated  as  simple  interest,  but  where  the  mass  of  the  tree  is 
considered  as  capital,  interest  is  computed  as  compound. 

The  Rate  of  Mass  Accretion  of  a  Standing  Tree 
May  be  Determined  in  the  following  manner:  In  mature 
trees  the  height  growth  per  year  is  inconsiderable,  and  may  be 
disregarded  for  short  periods  of  time.  The  present  and  past  vol- 
umes, then,  vary  as  their  respective  basal  areas.  Taking  twice 
the  width  of  the  rings  for  the  period  desired  from  the  present 


140  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

diameter  will  give  approximately  the  former  diameter  of  the  tree. 
From  this  diameter  obtain  the  area  at  that  time,  and  compute 
percentage  of  growth  from  the  difference  between  that  and  the 
present  area. 

For  example:  By  cutting  into  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  by 
removing  a  core  of  wood  with  an  accretion  borer,  and  measur- 
ing the  thickness  of  the  annual  rings  for  ten  years,  we  find  it  to 
be  .5  inch,  and  the  present  diameter  of  the  tree  inside  bark  is 
twenty  inches. 

Increase  in  diameter  for  ten  years 5X2—1  inch 

Diameter  of  tree  ten  years  ago 20 — 1=19  inches 

Present  cross-sectional  area  with  diameter  20 

inches   2.1817  square*  feet 

Area  ten  years  ago,  with  diameter  19  inches.  ..1.9689  square  feet 

Increase  in  area  for  ten  years 2128  square  foot 

Per  cent  increase 2128X100-^10X1.9689=1% 

The  Determination  of  the  Rate  of  Mass  Accretion  of 
a  Standing  Tree  with  compound  interest  is  a  more  difficult 
matter,  but  Pressler,  an  eminent  German  forester,  calculated 
tables  for  average  thrifty  trees  and  for  very  thrifty  trees,  the  use 
of  which  renders  the  work  of  computation  very  simple.  The 
width  of  rings  for  the  desired  period  is  measured,  and  the  diam- 
eter divided  by  twice  the  width  of  these  rings.  This  gives  rela- 
tive diameter,  opposite  which,  in  Pressler's  tables  (see  page  141) 
will  be  found  a  number  which  is  to  be  divided  by  the  number  of 
years  in  the  period.  The  result  will  be  the  per  cent  of  accretion 
with  compound  interest.  For  example:  A  Cottonwood  sixteen 
inches  in  diameter  shows  a  growth  of  2.2  inches  on  the  radius 
for  the  last  ten  years.  The  diameter  increase  would  then  be  4.4 
inches,  and  by  dividing  the  diameter  by  the  diameter  increase,  3.6 
is  found  to  be  the  relative  diameter.  In  Pressler's  tables,  oppo- 
site 3.6  is  found  the  number  81  in  the  column  of  average  thrifty 
trees.  Divide  81  by  ten  (the  number  of  years),  and  obtain  the 
rate  of  increase  with  compound  interest,  8.1  per  cent. 


PRESSLER'S  TABLE. 


141 


Relative 
Diameter. 

Average 
Thrifty  Tree. 

Very 
Thrifty  Tree. 

Relative 
Diameter. 

Average 
Thrifty  Tree.  | 

flj 

22 

H 

£> 

^ 

££ 

Relative 
Diameter. 

Average 
Thrifty  Tree. 

Very 
Thrifty  Tree. 

Relative 
Diameter. 

Average 
Thrifty  Tree. 

1 

>> 
tK 

£g 

Relative 
Diameter. 

Average 
Thrifty  Tree,  j 

Very 
Thrifty  Tree.  ;  1 

2.0 

144 

156 

5.9 

49 

54 

9.7 

29 

32 

18.5 

15 

17 

39 

6.9 

7.8 

2.1 

138 

150 

6.0 

48 

53 

9.8 

29 

32 

19.0 

14 

16 

40 

6.8 

7.6 

2.2 

132 

144 

6.1 

47 

53 

9.9 

28 

32 

19.5 

14 

16 

41 

6.6 

7.4 

2.3 

127 

139 

6.2 

46 

52 

10.0 

28 

31 

20.0 

14 

15 

42 

6.4 

7.2 

2.4 

122 

134 

6.3 

45 

51 

10.2 

27 

31 

20.5 

13 

15 

43 

6.3 

7.1 

2.5 

117 

129 

6.4 

45 

5U 

10.4 

27 

30 

21.0 

13 

15 

44 

6.1 

6.9 

2.6 

113 

124 

6.5 

44 

49 

10.6 

26 

30 

21.5 

13 

14 

45 

6.0 

6.7 

2.7 

109 

120 

6.6 

43 

48 

10.8 

26 

29 

22.0 

12 

14 

46 

5.9 

6.6 

2.8 

105 

116 

6.7 

42 

48 

11.0 

25 

28 

22.5 

12 

14 

47 

5.8 

6.5 

2.9 

101 

112 

6.8 

42 

47 

11.2 

25 

28 

23.0 

12 

13 

48 

5.6 

6.3 

3.0 

98 

109 

6.9 

41 

46 

11.4 

24 

27 

23.5 

12 

13 

50 

5.4 

6.1 

3.1 

95 

105 

7.0 

40 

45 

11.6 

24 

27 

24.0 

11 

13 

52 

5.2 

5.9 

3.2 

92 

102 

7.1 

40 

45 

11.8 

23 

26 

24.5 

11 

12 

54 

5.1 

5.7 

3.3 

89 

99 

7.2 

39 

44 

12.0 

23 

26 

25.0 

11 

12 

56 

4.9 

5.5 

3.4 

86 

96 

7.3 

39 

44 

12.2 

23 

26 

25.5 

11 

12 

58 

4.7 

5.3 

3.5 

84 

93 

7.4 

38 

43 

12.4 

22 

25 

26.0 

10 

12 

60 

4.5 

5.1 

3.6 

81 

91 

7.5 

38 

42 

12.6 

22 

25 

26.5 

10 

12 

62 

4.4 

4.9 

3.7 

79 

88 

7.6 

37 

42 

12.8 

22 

24 

27.0 

10 

11 

64 

4.2 

4.7 

3.8 

77 

86 

7.7 

37 

41 

13.0 

21 

24 

27.5 

9.9 

11 

66 

4.1 

4.6 

3.9 

75 

84 

7.8 

36 

41 

13.2 

21 

24 

28.0 

9.7 

11 

68 

3.9 

4  4 

4.0 

73 

81 

7.9 

36 

40 

13.4 

21 

23 

28.5 

9.5 

11 

70 

3.8 

4.3 

.1 

71 

79 

8.0 

35 

40 

13.6 

20 

28 

29.0 

9.3 

11 

72 

3.7 

4.2 

.2 

69 

77 

8.1 

35 

39 

13.8 

20 

23 

29.5 

9.2 

10.5 

74 

3.6 

4.1 

.3 

68 

76 

8.2 

34 

39 

14.0 

20 

22 

30.0 

9.0 

10.0 

76 

3.6 

4.0 

.4 

66 

74 

8.3 

34 

38 

14.2 

19 

22 

30.5 

8.9 

10.0 

78 

3.5 

3.9 

.5 

65 

72 

8.4 

34 

38 

14.4 

19 

22 

31.0 

8.7 

9.8 

80 

3.4 

3.8 

.6 

63 

70 

8.5 

33 

37 

14.6 

19 

21 

31.5 

8.6 

9.7 

85 

3.2 

3.6 

4.7 

62 

69 

8.6 

33 

37 

14.8 

19 

21 

32.0 

8.5 

9.5 

90 

3.0 

3.4 

4.8 

60 

67 

8.7 

32 

36 

15.0 

18 

21 

32.5 

8.4 

9.4 

100 

2.7 

3.0 

4.9 

59 

66 

8  8 

32 

36 

15.2 

18 

20 

33.0 

8.2 

9.2 

110 

2.4 

2.7 

5.0 

58 

65 

8.9 

32 

35 

15.4 

18 

20 

33.5 

8.1 

9.1 

120 

2.2 

2.5 

5.1 

56 

63 

9.0 

31 

35 

15.6 

18 

20 

84.0 

7.9 

8.9 

130 

2.1 

2.3 

5.2 

55 

62 

9.1 

31 

35 

15  8 

17 

20 

34.5 

7.8 

8.8 

140 

1.9 

2.2 

5.3 

54 

61 

9.2 

31 

34 

16.0 

17 

19 

35.0 

7.7 

8.6 

150 

1.8 

2.0 

5.4 

53 

60 

9.3 

30 

34 

16.5 

17 

19 

35.5 

7.6 

8.5 

170 

1.6 

1.8 

5.5 

52 

59 

9.4 

30 

34 

17.0 

16 

18 

36.0 

7  5 

8.4 

200 

1.3 

1.5 

5.6 

51 

57 

9.5 

29 

33 

17.5 

16 

18 

37.0 

7  3 

8.2 

250 

1.1 

1.2 

5.7 

50 

56 

9.6 

29 

33 

18.0 

15 

17 

38.0 

7.1 

8.0 

300 

0.9 

1.0 

5.8 

49 

55 

In  Determining  the  Accretion   of  a  Felled  Tree  the 

volume  is  computed  from  actual  measurements.  By  a  few  trials 
the  top  is  cut  off  where  the  section  contains  as  many  rings  as 
there  are  years  in  the  period  for  which  the  accretion  is  desired, 
and  the  height  of  the  tree  at  that  time  measured.  The  difference 
in  volumes  past  and  present  gives  periodic  accretion.  The 
diameter  for  both  the  past  and  present  tree  may  be  taken  at  the 
middle  of  the  topless  stem,  and  volumes  found  by  multiplying 


142 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


'»•>-  "f"  -•-•-— -J.-L...L-.-V-\~- l-V~Y-VSr"*5 


s-tt 


Figure  38.    The  progressive  volume  of  a  tree. 


ACCRETION  OF  A  FELLED  TREE. 


143 


their  respective  cross-sectional  areas  at  that  point  by  the  length 
of  the  topless  trunk. 

A  more  careful  stem  analysis  of  a  tree  affords  detailed  meas- 
urements from  which  the  volume  at  any  time  during  its  lifetime 
may  be  determined  very  accurately.  The  following  table  of 
measurements  of  a  pine  will  furnish  data  for  the  calculation  of 
its  volume  at  different  ages,  and  its  progressive  development  is 
graphically  illustrated  in  Figure  38: 


•o 

|d 

G 

h 
u 

Accretion  in  inches  during  past 

£S 

ii, 

&» 

Age. 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

11 

5§.§ 

•m 

years. 

years. 

years  . 

years. 

years  . 

years. 

years. 

2 

9.3 

8.52 

65 

.54 

1.10 

1.60 

2.16 

2.80 

3.70 

4.26 

10 

7.8 

7.16 

57 

.50 

.94 

1.34 

1.92 

2.68 

2.70 

18 

7.1 

6.98 

51 

.57 

1.07 

1.58 

2.30 

3.37 

3.49 

26 

6.3 

5.88 

42 

.42 

.99 

1.51 

2.59 

2.94 

34 

5.7 

4.92 

39 

.44 

1.03 

1.71 

2.46 

42 

4.4 

3.94 

28 

.48 

1.23 

1.97 

50 

3.0 

2.48 

19 

.56 

1.24 

58 

.5 

.48 

5 

.24 

60 

Top 

The  Accretion  of  a  Forest  for  a  given  number  of  years 
is  found  by  multiplying  the  accretion  of  the  sample  tree  for  that 
period  by  the  number  of  trees  per  acre  and  the  number  of  acres 
in  the  tract.  If  the  trees  are  arranged  in  diameter  classes,  the 
accretion  of  each  class  is  determined,  and  the  sum  of  accretions 
of  all  the  classes  taken  as  the  accretion  of  the  forest. 

The  Working  Plan  of  a  forest  contemplates  the  economic 
management  of  the  growing  crop,  so  that  there  may  be  cut  each 
year  not  to  exceed  the  amount  of  the  annual  accretion;  or,  if 
worked  on  the  rotation  plan,  so  that  there  may  be  cut  at  any  one 
time  not  more  than  the  accretion  for  the  period  of  rotation,  thus 
leaving  the  capital  stock  unimpaired.  The  methods  of  measure- 
ment described  are  used  in  outlining  this  plan. 

The  Estimation  of  Standing  Timber  is  usually  a  matter 
of  personal  experience  on  the  part  of  the  estimator.  No  meas- 
urements are  taken  of  trees,  but  the  estimate  is  made  by  men  of 
long  experience  in  the  woods.  Sometimes  their  figures  are  very 
close,  but  more  often  they  fall  short  of  the  actual  stand  of  tim- 
ber. Buying  and  selling  timber  lands  is  based  on  this  method  of 
determining  the  possible  crop,  both  parties  sending  out  their 


144  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

own  estimators.  The  number  of  trees  on  typical  areas,  as  an 
acre  in  each  forty,  may  be  counted,  and  the  sizes  estimated. 
Often  all  timber  trees  on  a  forty-acre  lot  are  counted,  and  the 
number  of  logs  per  1,000  feet  board  measure  estimated. 

For  an  inexperienced  person  a  good  method  would  be  to 
caliper  all  trees  on  typical  areas  of  the  tract,  and  then  compute 
the  stand  from  the  cross-sectional  area  and  the  average  length  of 
timber  stick,  which  could  be  estimated  very  closely  after  a  little 
practice.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  this  work  lies  in  the  selection 
of  typical  areas  and  sample  trees.  All  forestry  measurements 
and  estimates  are  only  approximations,  and  it  is  often  found 
necessary  to  modify  working  plans  to  meet  new  information 
and  changed  conditions. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND   LUMBER. 

I/ogs  are  Measured  in  Feet  Board  Measure  by  taking 
the  length  and  diameter  at  the  small  end,  and  by  reference  to  a 
table  the  corresponding  number  of  feet  board  measure  is  found. 
This  is  not  usually  accurate,  but  seems  to  be  sufficiently  so  to 
satisfy  both  buyer  and  seller  in  this  state.  Lumber  is  measured 
in  square  feet  of  surface  of  a  board  one  inch  in  thickness,  com- 
monly called  board  measure,  or  B.  M.,  for  short. 

Scaling  I/ogs  in  Minnesota  is  a  Simple  Matter.  It  is 
done  after  they  are  cut  from  the  tree  and  marked,  wherever  con- 
venient,— in  the  woods,  on  skidways,  on  cars,  on  the  river,  or 
elsewhere.  For  straight,  sound  logs  no  experience  is  necessary, 
but  for  defective  logs  the  sealer's  judgment  is  depended  upon  to 
make  proper  deduction,  so  as  to  get  out  good  lumber.  Private 
sealers  may  be  employed  by  those  interested,  but,  to  avoid  possi- 
ble litigation  over  sales,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  surveyor  gen- 
eral of  logs  and  lumber  for  the  district  appoint  an  official  sealer 
to  do  the  work.  The  sealers  enter  in  a  book  carried  for  the  pur- 
pose the  number  of  logs  scaled,  the  length,  the  feet  B.  M.,  the 
.number  of  each  log  if  numbered,  the  section,  township  and  range 
where  cut,  and  the  markings.  These  books  are  kept  on  file  in 
the  surveyor  general's  office  for  future  reference.  There  are 
seven  lumber  districts  provided  for  by  law  in  Minnesota,  but  in 
only  five  has  it  been  found  necessary  to  open  offices,  namely,  at 
Stillwater,  Minneapolis,  Wabasha,  Duluth  and  Crookston. 


SCALING. 


145 


The  Minnesota  law  provides  that  Scribner's  rule  be  the  only 
legal  rule  for  the  survey  of  logs  in  this  state,  and  that  every  log 
shall  be  surveyed  by  the  largest  number  of  even  feet  which  it 
contains  in  length  over  ten  feet  and  under  twenty-four  feet,  and 
all  logs  of  twenty-four  feet  or  more  shall  be  surveyed  as  two 
logs  or  more.  As  to  what  Scribner's  rule  is  the  law  does  not 
say,  and  yet  requires  it  to  be  posted  in  the  offices  of  the  surveyors 
general  of  logs  and  lumber.  The  following  table  is  a  copy  of 
Scribner's  rule  as  used  here: 

SCRIBNER'S   RUIvE. 


Diameters 
Inches. 

I,OG  lyENGTHS  IN  FEET. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

8 

24 

28 

32 

40 

44 

48 

9 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55- 

10 

40 

45 

50 

55 

65 

70 

11 

50 

55 

65 

70 

80 

90 

12 

59 

69 

79 

88 

98 

108 

13 

73 

85 

97 

109 

122 

134 

14 

86 

100 

114 

129 

143 

157 

15 

107 

125 

142 

160 

178 

196 

16 

119 

139 

159 

178 

198 

218 

17 

139 

162 

185 

208 

232 

255 

•  18 

160 

187 

213 

240 

267 

293 

19 

180 

210 

240 

270 

300 

330 

20 

210 

245 

280 

315 

350 

385 

21 

228 

266 

304 

342 

380 

418 

22 

251 

292 

334 

376 

418 

460 

23 

283 

330 

377 

424 

470 

518 

24 

303 

353 

404 

454 

505 

555 

25 

344 

401 

459 

516 

573 

631 

26 

375 

439 

500 

562 

625 

688 

27 

411 

479 

548 

616 

684 

75H 

28 

436 

509 

582 

654 

728 

800 

29 

457 

539 

609 

685 

761 

838 

30 

493 

575 

657 

739 

821 

904 

31 

532 

622 

710 

799 

888 

976 

32 

552 

644 

736 

828 

920 

1012 

33 

588 

686 

784 

882 

980 

34 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1000 

35 

657 

766 

876 

985 

1095 

36 

692 

807 

923 

1038 

1152 

37 

772 

901 

1029 

1158 

1287 

38 

801 

934 

1068 

1201 

39 

840 

980 

1120 

1260 

40 

903 

1053 

1204 

1354 

41 

954 

1113 

1272 

1431 

42 

1007 

1175 

1343 

43 

1046 

1222 

1396 

44 

1110 

1295 

1430 

45 

1139 

1315 

1587 

46 

1190 

1380 

1656 

47 

1242 

1445 

1728 

48 

1296 

1512 

1818 

10 


146 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


The  Number  of  Feet  B.  M.  which  May  be  Obtained 
from  a  I/og  varies  with  the  management  of  the  cutting,  the 
width  of  kerf,  the  width  of  boards,  whether  one  or  two  inch 
boards,  or  some  of  both  are  cut  from  the  same  log.  Usually  the 
cut  exceeds  the  scale.  Take,  for  example,  a  log  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  small  end,  eighteen  inches  at  the  middle,  twenty 
inches  at  the  large  end,  and  twelve  feet  long.  Such  a  log  con- 
tains about  21.2  cubic  feet.  The  official  scale  gives  119  feet  B. 
M.,  which  is  equal  to  9.9  cubic  feet.  The  actual  cut  should  give 
155-75  feet  B.  M.,  or  thirteen  cubic  feet  of  lumber,  the  slab  would 
be  about  5.3  cubic  feet,  and  the  kerf  (sawdust)  about  2.9  cubic 
feet.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  Minnesota  official  scale 
gives  the  seller  46.7  per  cent  of  his  log,  while  the  mill  turns  out 
61.3  per  cent  in  lumber,  13.7  per  cent  in  sawdust  and  25  per 
cent  in  slab.  The  producer  loses  53.3  per  cent  of  the  scaled  log; 
but  that  is  not  all  his  loss.  In  marking  logs  to  be  cut  the  under- 
cutter  allows  at  least  three  inches  over  the  required  length  to. 
cover  loss  in  checking;  that  is,  a  log  scaled  at  twelve  foot  length 
would  really  measure  twelve  feet  and  three  inches,  or  more. 

The  Percentage  of  the  I/ogs,on  which  the  seller  or  pro- 
ducer gets  returns  varies  with  different  sizes  and  shapes.  The 
following  table  will  serve  as  a  comparison: 


Diameters 
Inches. 

I,engths 
Feet. 

vScale 

Volume 
C.  F. 

Per  cent 
of  Actual 
Volume 
Scaled. 

B.  M. 

C.  F. 

21-22 

16 

304 

25.3 

40.3 

62.8 

18-19 

22 

293 

24.4 

41.1 

59.4 

18-21 

16 

213 

17.9 

33.2 

53.9 

16-18 

16 

159 

13.3 

25.2 

52.8 

15-22 

16 

142 

11.8 

29.9 

39.5 

1  -16 

14 

125 

10.6 

18.3 

57.9 

16-20 

12 

119 

9.9 

21.2 

46.7 

14-18 

12 

86 

7.2 

16.8 

42.9 

14-15 

12 

86 

7.2 

13.8 

52.2 

10-14 

20 

65 

5.4 

15.7 

34.4 

11-13 

16 

65 

5.4 

12.6 

42.9 

11-12 

16 

65 

5.4 

11.5 

47.0 

11-15 

12 

50 

4.2 

11.1 

37.8 

10-12 

16 

50 

4.2 

10.6 

39.6 

8-10 

16 

32 

2.7 

7:1 

37.8 

6-  9 

16 

16 

1.3 

4.9 

27.1 

9-11 

16 

40 

3.3 

8.7 

38.1 

8-11 

16 

32 

2.7 

7.9 

33.8 

8-12 

16 

32 

2.7 

8.7 

30.6 

8-13 

16 

32 

2.7 

9.6 

27.8 

8-12 

12 

24 

2.0 

6.5 

30.6 

8-10 

12 

24 

2.0 

5.3 

37.7 

9-11 

12 

30 

2.5 

6.5 

38  2 

FOREST  INSTRUMENTS.  147 

In  practice  these  discrepancies  are  equalized  as  the  result  of 
the  ordinary  trade  relations,  and  are  not  liable  to  work  serious 
injustice  under  present  conditions,  and  are  here  stated  only  to 
call  attention  to  our  crude  methods  of  measuring  timber. 

INSTRUMENTS  USED   IN  FOREST  MENSURATION. 

The  Equipment  of  a  Forester,  while  not  extensive,  must 
be  complete  for  the  work  in  hand.  He  surveys  the  land,  lays 
out  roads  and  ditches,  cuts  down  trees  and  saws  them  into  logs, 
measures  diameters  of  logs  and  growing  trees,  takes  heights  of 
trees,  determines  rates  of  growth,  estimates  and  measures  tim- 
ber and  cordwood,  and  maps  and  plats  his  work.  Where  there 
has  been  a  survey  of  land  by  the  government,  as  in  this  state,  he 
will  not  be  called  upon  to  make  one,  as  maps  sufficiently  reliable 
for  his  purpose  may  be  had  from  official  records;  but  to  meet 
all  the  requirements  of  his  position  the  forester  should  be  an 
expert  surveyor,  and  provided  with  all  the  necessary  instruments 
for  the  work,  including  drawing  instruments,  tables,  stationery, 
etc.,  for  office  work,  in  mapping  and  platting  his  field  observa- 
tions. The  work  of  forestry  mensuration  is  concerned  mainly 
with  taking  diameters  and  heights  of  trees,  determining  the  areas 
on  which  they  stand  and  the  rate  of  growth. 

For  Measuring  I,and  Areas  the  ordinary  steel  tape,  grad- 
uated on  one  side  in  feet,  tenths  and  hundredths,  and  on  the 
other  side  in  links  for  convenience  in  computing  acreage,  is  used 
— the  loo-foot  length  being  preferred.  For  the  same  purpose  a 
steel  chain  is  also  used,  and  with  the  chain  or  tape  should  be  a 
set  of  marking  pins  and  ranging  poles.  In  laying  out  small 
rectangular  areas,  as  a  sample  acre,  a  cross-staff  head,  an  angle 
mirror,  or  an  angle  prism  is  used;  but  for  more  extended  sur- 
veys and  for  road  and  ditch  work  a  transit  and  level  would  be 
advisable,  while  for  the  location  of  lost  corners  the  magnetic 
compass  might  have  to  be  resorted  to. 

For  the  Rough  I,and  Measurement  of  a  Valuation 
Survey  a  Steel  Chain,  Thirty-three  Feet  I/ong,  is  used. 
This  short  chain  is  attached  to  a  stout  leather  belt  about  the 
waist  of  the  tallyman,  whose  hands  are  then  free  to  carry  the 
tallyboard  holding  'notebook  or  tally  blanks,  and  to  work  with  a 
lead  pencil.  A  small  magnetic  compass  by  which  the  tallyman 
directs  his  course  is  fixed  on  one  corner  of  the  tallyboard. 


148  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

The  Diameters  of  Trees  and  I/ogs  are  taken  with  a 
pair  of  wooden  calipers  of  convenient  size  for  the  timber  of 
the  district  A  limb  or  scale  bar,  graduated  in  inches  and  tenths, 
has  a  fixed  arm  standing  out  at  right  angles  at  one  end,  while 
a  second  arm  is  movable  along  the  bar  so  that  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  may  be  inclosed  between  them  and  the  diameter  read 
directly  from  the  scale.  The  fixed  arm  is  held  in  place  by  a 


Figure  39.     Calipering  a  tree. 

screw  so  that  it  may  be  removed  for  packing  and  transportation, 
or  so  that  a  broken  part  may  be  replaced.  The  other  arm  has 
an  adjustable  plate  which  keeps  it  at  right  angles  to  the  scale  bar 
when  pressed  against  the  tree.  Sometimes  the  circumference  of 
the  tree  is  measured  with  a  steel  tape,  one  side  of  which  is  grad- 
uated to  give  diameters  of  circles  whose  circumferences  are  read 
from  the  other  side. 

The  Heights  of  Trees  are  determined  by  means  of  a  most 
convenient  and  useful  little  instrument,  called  Faustman's  mir- 
ror hypsometer.  The  distance  of  the  observer  from  the  tree  is 


FOREST  INSTRUMENTS. 


149 


measured  with  a  steel  tape,  and  the  instrument  adjusted  to  that 
distance  by  the  slide  and  vertical  scale.  The  top  and  bottom  of 
the  tree  are  then  sighted  and  the  readings  of  the  marginal  scale 
where  the  plumb  line  crosses  it  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
each  other,  according  as  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  above  or 
below  the  level  of  the  tree.  This  instrument  may  also  be  used 


B 


Figure  40.  Faustman's  mirror  hypsometer.  (ABCD.)  Frame  of  in- 
strument, (£)  mirror  in  which  scale  is  reflected,  (a)  eyepiece,  (b~)  cross-wire 
on  which  object  is  sighted,  (ge)  slide  and  vertical  scale  for  distance  of  ob- 
server from  tree,  (/)  spring  to  hold  slide  in  place,  (h)  marginal  scale  which 
gives  height  of  tree. 


in  taking  levels  and  grades,  and  may  be  mounted  on  a  Jacob 
staff  or  tripod,  but  is  more  often  used  in  the  hand.  Another 
instrument,  called  "Baummesser"  by  the  Germans,  mounted  on 
a  tripod,  is  used  to  take  heights,  and  by  means  of  a  stadia 
attachment  the  diameter  at  any  point  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
may  also  be  measured.  After  some  practice  with  one  of  them  a 


150 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


person  may  become  sufficiently  expert  at  estimating  Jhe  heights 
of  trees  to  get  along  without  an  instrument. 

The  Rate  of  Growth  of  a  Standing  Tree  is  determined 
by  removing  from  the  trunk  a  small  cylinder  of  wood  with  a  hol- 
low auger,  called  an  accretion  borer.  On  this  section  of  wood 
the  annual  rings  are  counted,  and  their  width  measured  with  a 
pocket  rule  graduated  in  inches  and  tenths,  or  in  millimeters. 


Figure  41.    The  mirror  hypsometer  in  use. 

Where  the  growth  has  been  slow,  and  the  rings  are  close,  a 
pocket  lens  may  be  necessary  to  enable  one  to  count  them. 
When  a  fuller  determination  of  the  rate  of  growth  is  desirable, 
trees  are  felled  with  an  ax,  or  with  a  saw,  and  cut  into  logs.  A 
small  saw  is  easier  to  carry  around,  but  a  longer,  heavier  saw 
does  much  faster  work.  The  common  logging  saw  of  the  Min- 
nesota woods  is  six  feet  in  length.  In  making  an  examination 
of  the  end  of  a  log  the  rough  graining  of  the  saw  must  often  be 
smoothed  away  before  the  rings  can  be  counted  readily,  and  this 


FOREST    INSTRUMENTS. 


151 


Figure  42.  The  accretion  borer,  showing  handle,  hollow  auger,  with- 
drawing pin  and  a  core  of  wood  extracted.  The  handle  is  hollow,  with 
screw  caps,  so  that  the  other  parts  may  be  carried  inside  when  not  in  use. 


Figure  43.     Using  the  accretion  borer  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 


152  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

is  well  accomplished  with  a  sharp  knife,  cutting  a  broad  V  notch 
from  the  center  to  the  circumference. 

Miscellaneous  Instruments  used  by  the  forester.  For 
marking  logs,  blazing  trees,  cutting  away  limbs,  etc.,  a  hand 
ax  is  a  desirable  addition  to  the  equipment.  It  should  be  small, 
so  as  to  be  conveniently  carried  in  the  pocket  or  in  the  belt,  and 
should  have  a  leather  guard  to  protect  the  edge  when  not  in  use. 
As  saws  and  axes  will  not  keep  sharp  long,  if  used,  a  grindstone, 
whetstones,  files  and  saw  sets  should  be  provided.  In  calipering 
trees  on  a  small  area  across  which  it  is  necessary  to  make  sev- 
eral trips,  the  surveyor,  avoids  repetitions  by  marking  the  bark 
of  each  tree,  as  he  calipers  it,  with  a  metal  scratcher  carried  in 
one  hand.  Sometimes  a  pair  of  climbers  are  used  to  get  into  the 
top  of  a  tree  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  upper  limbs  and  diam- 
eters. The  number  of  feet  board  measure  in  logs  is  ascertained 
by  means  of  the  ordinary  log  rule,  Minnesota  standard,  used  by 
sealers,  and  a  board  rule  measures  the  lumber  as  it  comes  from 
the  sawmill. 

A  Camping  Outfit  is  necessary  where  the  work  of  the  for- 
ester is  done  in  the  depths  of  the  forest,  far  from  habitations  and 
railroads,  and  perhaps  a  wagon  and  a  team  of  horses  or  pack 
horses  should  be  provided  for  moving  camp  and  hauling  sup- 
plies. If  the  area  to  be  worked  over  is  great,  the  chief  of  the 
party  should  have  a  good  saddle  horse,  so  that  he  may  get  over 
the  country  quickly,  and  lay  out  work  for  his  subordinates  who 
operate  on  foot. 


CHAPTER  XL 

FOREST  PROBLEMS  IN  MINNESOTA. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  give  general  suggestions 
which  may  be  applied  to  a  variety  of  conditions,  and  not  to  pre- 
scribe exact  treatment  for  any  special  forest  problem.  It  has 
seemed  that  certain  methods  of  treatment  could  be  best  given  in 
this  way. 

I.  A.  has  a  swamp  covered  with  thrifty  Black  Spruce,  in  all 
about  seventy-five  acres.  Last  year  he  got  500  Christmas  trees 
from  it,  which  he  sold  at  eight  cents  each.  There  is  also  some 
Tamarack  and  Pine  on  the  higher  land.  For  what  trees  can 
this  land  be  used  for  greatest  profit?  How  long  does  it  take  to 
grow  Christmas  trees? 

Answer:  If  the  Black  Spruce  are  thrifty,  it  is  a  very  sure 
indication  that  the  soil  is  not  overly  wet  during  the  summer,  and 
that  it  is  in  very  good  shape  for  Tamarack  or  other  more  valua- 
ble tree.  The  Black  Spruce  is  a  very  slow  grower,  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  should  be  encouraged  under  any  condition.  Our 
native  White  Spruce  grows  much  faster,  and  this  would  be  much 
the  most  profitable  of  any  of  our  native  trees  for  paper  pulp; 
but  some  studies  by  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  seem  to 
show  that  the  Norway  Spruce  could  be  grown  at  even  greater 
profit  for  paper  pulp.  This  tree  is  fully  as  rapid  a  grower  as  the 
White  Spruce,  nearly  as  hardy,  and  the  seed  of  it  is  much  more 
easily  obtained.  If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  use  this  land  for 
pulp  wood,  a  small  bed  of  spruce  seedlings  should  be  made  up 
near  by,  in  which  should  be  sown  White  or  Norway  Spruce  seed, 
and  when  the  seedlings  are  three  or  four  years  old  they  should 
be  transplanted  to  the  swamp.  It  would  take  at  least  fifteen  years 
to  grow  Black  Spruce  to  a  height  of  six  feet  for  Christmas  trees, 
while  the  Norway  Spruce  could  probably  be  grown  to  the  same 
height  under  same  conditions  in  ten  years.  About  1,800  Christ- 
mas trees  can  be  grown  on  one  acre  of  land  to  a  height  of  six 
feet  and  with  a  spread  of  five  feet.  Spruce  may  be  grown  closer 
together  than  most  other  trees  for  this  purpose,  because  the 
shaded  branches  are  not  easily  killed  out. 


154  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

2.  B.  has  a  Tamarack  swamp  of  800  acres,  from  which  he  has 
cut  all  the  timber  big  enough  for  ties.     There  is  practically  no 
demand  for  the  smaller  post  timber  at  present,  and  he  asks  what 
he  should  do  with  it,  and  if  it  will  pay  him  to  hold  it.     The  land 
seems  to  be  well  stocked  with  young  trees  of  various  ages,  some 
of  which  have  been  somewhat  broken  down  in  getting  out  the 
larger  tie  timber. 

Answer:  Probably  the  best  treatment  would  be  to  let  it 
alone.  If  the  land  is  quite  wet  there  is  very  little  chance  of.  fire 
doing  much  damage  to  it.  If,  however,  it  is  liable  to  be  dried 
out  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  take  some  precautions  to  protect 
it  from  fire,  if  it  can  be  done  without  too  much  expense. 

The  Tamarack  grows  very  rapidly,  and  there  is  perhaps  no 
tree  that  will  pay  better  than  this,  providing  the  taxes  are  not 
too  high.  While  there  may  be  no  demand  at  present  for  the 
smaller  stuff  for  fence  posts,  yet  within  a  few  years  such  a 
demand  is  inevitable,  as  the  more  accessible  Tamarack  is  now 
being  rapidly  sought  after  for  such  purposes,  and  is  being 
shipped  in  large  quantities  to  the  prairie  farms.  Such  a  Tam- 
arack swamp,  if  carefully  looked  after,  is  capable  of  continuing 
itself  indefinitely  and  producing  a  fairly  good  annual  revenue. 
The  advisability  of  perpetuating  such  a  swamp  in  Tamarack 
would  depend  largely  on  the  demand  for  hay  land,  for  which  pur- 
poses such  land  is  generally  well  adapted. 

3.  A.    has   500   acres   of   dry,    sandy   land.     The    soil    blows 
badly,  and  is  too  light  for  grain.     Clover  does  very  well  on  this 
land  when  protected  with  snow  in  winter,  but  is  liable  to  kill  out 
in  open  winters.     The  subsoil  is  clay. 

Answer:  Such  land  should  never  have  been  cleared  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  and  the  sooner  it  can  be  got  into  tree  growth 
again  the  better  for  the  soil.  The  land  should  be  seeded  down 
with  rye  or  other  crop,  or  possibly  with  clover,  until  something 
of  a  sod  is  formed.  In  this  sod  Jack  Pine  might  be  planted,  or 
it  is  very  probable  that  Jack  Pine  would  come  well  from  seed 
sown  in  furrows  made  in  the  sod.  After  the  Jack  Pine  is  well 
established,  about  500  Norway  or  White  Pine  per  acre  could  be 
planted  to  advantage.  This  should  receive  only  a  moderate 
crowding  by  the  Jack  Pine,  and  should  be  protected  from  too 
much  crowding  until  it  can  take  care  of  itself.  This  number  of 


FOREST  PROBLEMS.  155 

trees  would  be  enough  to  make  a  well  stocked  acre  at  maturity. 
Since  the  land  has  a  heavy  subsoil,  the  chances  are  that  there 
would  be  a  good  tree  growth,  as  trees  are  more  influenced  by 
subsoil  than  by  the  surface.  If  such  land  is  very  accessible,  it 
would  probably  pay  better  to  grow  green  crops  on  the  soil,  and 
by  careful  rotation  use  it  for  agricultural  purposes,  for  which  it 
may  be  fairly  well  adapted  if  carefully  managed. 

4.  B.  has  600  acres  of  Jack  Pine,  four  to  twelve  inches  in 
diameter.     The  soil  is  typical  of  Jack  Pine  land,  being  very  sandy 
and  unfit  for  agriculture.     What  is  the  best  treatment  of  it? 

Answer:  Such  land  is  only  fit  for  timber  growth,  and  Jack 
Pine  is  probably  the  most  profitable  tree  that  can  be  grown  upon 
it  if  it  can  be  sold  as  fuel.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  out  fires, 
and  to  cut  the  trees  on  the  selection  plan,  removing  the  larger 
ones  when  they  attain  a  diameter  of  ten  inches.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  best  to  cut  clean  on  certain  parts  at  each  cutting,  but 
the  cuttings  in  such  cases  should  not  be  so  large  but  what  the 
trees  near  by  will  seed  the  land.  This  tree  has  wonderful  regen- 
erative power,  and  soon  covers  the  soil  with  a  new  growth.  It 
is  rather  impatient  of  shade,  and  the  young  seedlings  do  not  do 
well  under  the  old  trees.  It  often  happens  that  the  cones  on 
Jack  Pines  remain  upon  the  trees  unopened  for  a  long  time,  and 
often  fire  sweeps  over  the  land  which  scorches  them,  causing 
them  to  open  and  shed  their  seeds.  As  fire  is  to  be  avoided  on 
such  land,  in  order  to  protect  the  young  growth,  it  may  be  best 
to  gather  the  cones,  and  after  roasting  them  slightly  so  that  the 
scales  open,  scatter  the  cones  broadcast  over  the  cut-over  por- 
tions. If  timber  is  wanted,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  try  to 
secure  a  stand  of  Norway  Pine  seedlings. 

5.  A.  has  a  dry,  sandy  prairie,  the  soil  of  which  blows  badly 
when  it  is  broken  up.     The  trees  blow  out,  and  it  is  of  very  little 
value   for  agricultural  purposes.     Can   it  be  used   for   forestry? 
The   subsoil    is   fairly   good,   and   there   is   standing   water   at   a 
depth  of  about  ten  feet. 

Answer:  Under  such  conditions  trees  should  do  well  after 
they  have  once  become  established.  The  difficulty  is  in  getting 
the  land  stocked.  By  seeding  the  land  down  to  clover,  with  oats, 
in  the  spring  of  the  year,  the  oats  would  come  up  quickly,  and 
prevent  the  blowing  out  of  the  soil  early  in  the  spring,  and  the 


156  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

clover  would  come  along  and  probably  make  a  good  showing 
the  next  year.  After  the  oats  and  clover  have  started,  about  one- 
half  the  land  can  be  planted  in  strips,  not  more  than  sixteen  feet 
wide  and  twenty-four  feet  apart.  If  these  strips  are  planted  with 
almost  any  of  our  hardy  trees,  they  should  do  well.  For  this 
purpose  the  White  Willow  would  be  very  desirable,  but  seedlings 
of  Boxelder,  Green  Ash  or  Norway  Pine  should  also  do  well 
The  strips  of  land  in  oats  and  clover  will  afford  sufficient  protec- 
tion to  the  planted  strips  to  protect  them  from  wind  injury.  After 
these  strips  are  established  and  two  or  three  years  old  the  inter- 
vening spaces  may  be  broken  up  and  planted  without  danger 
of  any  further  wind  injury. 

6.  A.  has  a  piece  of  burned-over  timber  land  on  which  there 
are  scarcely  any  seed-bearing  trees  of  value;  the  valuable  pines 
have  all  been  destroyed  by  successive  burnings.  Most  of  the 
land  is  perhaps  two  miles  from  any  seed-producing  White  Pine, 
which  was  the  most  profitable  tree  on  this  land,  and  is  undoubt- 
edly now  the  most  profitable  tree  that  this  so1'!  can  produce.  He 
would  like  to  have  it  restocked  with  White  Pine.  How  should 
he  go  to  work  to  do  it? 

Answer:  Since  the  seed-bearing  trees  are  so  far  distant  from 
the  land  there  is  no  use  depending  upon  them  for  restocking  the 
soil  with  their  seedlings,  and  the  Poplar,  Birch  and  Bird  Cherry 
will  undoubtedly  soon  reign  supreme  here,  if  they  do  not  already. 
The  best  treatment  is  probably  to  gather  White  Pine  seedlings 
that  are  under  one  foot  in  height  from  the  nearby  forest,  if  they 
can  be  obtained  easily,  and  set  them  out,  about  twenty  feet  apart 
each  way,  amongst  the  brush  now  found  on  the  land,  taking  care 
to  make  a  little  clearing,  as  it  were,  where  each  tree  is  planted. 
The  tendency  will  be  for  the  worthless  trees  now  growing  on 
the  land  to  smother  out  the  pines  before  they  get  started,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  each  summer  for  several  years  to  go  over  the 
land  and  cut  away  those  trees  that  are  crowding  the  young  pines 
too  severely.  After  these  young  pines  have  become  established 
it  is  probable  that  they  will  be  able  to  take  care  of  themselves 
in  competition  with  the  inferior  species,  and  then  the  crowding 
which  they  receive  from  the  latter  will  be  a  good  thing  for  them, 
as  it  will  cause  them  to  take  on  an  upright  growth.  Plantings  of 
this  kind  will  probably  cost  somewhere  about  five  dollars  per 


FOREST  PROBLEMS.  157 

acre,  and  if  the  work  is  carefully  done  in  the  spring,  just  before 
the  growth  of  young  pine  starts,  there  should  be  scarce  any  fail- 
ures. In  setting  out  the  seedlings  it  is  important  that  they  be 
kept  in  water  or  in  damp  moss  from  the  time  they  are  pulled  out 
until  they  are  put  into  .the  soil  again.  They  must  not  ever  be 
allowed  to  appear  dry. 

7.  B.  has  land  in  Northern  Minnesota  covered  with  a  mixed 
growth  of  pine  and  poplar.     The  poplar  is  about  twelve  inches 
thick,  and  overtops  the  pine,  which  varies  from  four  to  eight 
inches  in  diameter  and  from  .twenty  to  forty  feet  high.     What 
treatment  would  be  best  to  secure  an  even  stand  of  White  Pine? 

Answer:  While  the  poplar  is  hardly  marketable  at  present, 
yet  it  should  be  removed  even  if  the  material  taken  out  hardly 
pays  for  the  expense  of  so  doing.  This  should  be  done  in  order 
to  give  the  pine  a  chance  to  shoot  upward.  After  the  poplar  is 
removed  the  pine  will  probably  stand  for  several  years  without 
serious  crowding,  when  it  should  be  thinned  to  obtain  best 
results. 

8.  A.  has  2,000  acres  of  burned-over  land  in  Northern  Min- 
nesota.    This    has    quite    a    number   of   crooked   and    branching 
seeding  trees,  probably  sufficient  to  seed  the  land,  but  the  soil  is 
so  covered  with  raspberries,  grass  and  poplar  that  the  pine  has 
very  little  chance  to  grow. 

Anszvcr:  The  best  way  for  giving  a  chance  for  the  pine  seed 
to  grow  is  to  drag  the  land  in  good  seed  years  as  well  as  can  be 
with  a  drag  made  df  oak  branches  or  logs.  This  will  tear  up  a 
good  deal  of  grass  or  bushes,  and  make  a  loose  surface  soil  in 
which  the  pines  can  take  root;  but  the  next  year  the  weeds  will 
again  start,  and  will  destroy  the  pine  unless  they  are  held  in 
check  in  some  way.  This  is  probably  best  done  by  going  over 
the  land  in  June  and  July,  and  cutting  off  some  of  the  weeds 
where  the  pines  have  seeded  thickest.  This  practice  should  be 
followed  at  least  two  years,  after  which  but  little  attention  of 
this  sort  will  be  needed,  as  the  pines  will  probably  be  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves  from  then  on.  If  the  land  can  be  used  for 
sheep  pasture  for  one  or  two  years,  most  of  the  weeds  and  bushes 
will  be  destroyed,  and  the  land  will  be  left  in  improved  shape 
for  the  treatment  outlined  in  dragging  the  land  to  get  it  into 
good  shape  for  a  seed  bed.  In  fact,  without  any  further  treat- 


158  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

ment  the  pine  will  probably   come   in   unless   the   land   is   very 
heavily  pastured. 

9.  A.  has  2,000  acres  of  land  in  Northern  Minnesota  without 
any  seeding  trees.     How  can  he  secure  a  stand  of  pine  upon  the 
land? 

Answer:  In  such  a  case  the  best  way  is  probably  to  set  out 
pine  seedlings,  pulled  from  the  woods,  setting  them  about  twenty 
feet  apart  each  way.  This  will  require  about  400  plants  per  acre. 
If  the  work  is  done  early  in  the  spring  there  should  be  no  great 
trouble  about  securing  a  good  stand.  These  trees  will  be 
crowded  by  weeds  on  the  land,  which  may  help  them  to  take  an 
upright  growth,  but  they  should  be  watched,  and  the  weeds  kept 
in  check,  if  they  are  liable  to  overcome  them.  After  a  few  years 
the  pine  will  be  improved  by  the  crowding  of  poplar  and  hazel 
brush,  which  is  generally  found  upon  such  soil. 

10.  A.  has  a  half  section  of  moderately  good  land,  covered 
with  an  even-aged  growth  of  White  and  Norway  Pine.   He  would 
like  to  maintain  a  stand  of  pine  on  this  tract,  not  that  he  thinks 
it  especially  profitable,   but  that  it  would  prove  an  interesting 
experiment. 

Answer:  Even-aged  pine  is  very  difficult  of  renewal  without 
clean  cutting,  and  it  is  quite  out  of  the  question  to  handle  such 
tracts  to  advantage  on  the  selection  system.  There  is  practically 
no  such  thing  as  even-aged  pine  over  large  areas  in  this  state. 
It  is  probable  that  this  land  could  be  best  renewed  by  the  group 
or  strip  methods.  The  land  should  be  burned  over  clean  after 
cutting,  care  being  taken  to  protect  any  good  groups  of  seed- 
lings that  may  occun  A  stand  of  young  seedlings  should  be 
secured  on  each  piece  of  land  cut  over  before  further  cutting  is 
done.  If  grass  or  brush  is  coming  in  too  fast,  it  will  probably 
be  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  land  with  a  log-drag  in  August  of 
the  first  good  seeding  year  after  cutting,  so  as  to  loosen  the  soil, 
that  the  seed  may  have  a  good  chance  to  start.  Grass  and  weeds 
often  prevent  the  growth  of  pine  seed,  or  even  kill  out  the  young 
seedlings  after  they  are  started. 

11.  A.  would  like  to  have  a  good  shelterbelt  about  the  build- 
ings on  his  prairie  farm,  in  central  Minnesota,  and  would  like  if 
it  could  be  made  to  furnish  fence  posts  and  fuel.     He  could  use 
ten  acres  for  this  purpose. 


FOREST  PROBLEMS.  159 

Answer:.  He  will  probably  come  nearest  to  accomplishing 
this  if  he  makes  a  solid  planting  of  White  Willow,  as  recom- 
mended on  page  130. 

12.  C.  has  a  farm  on  rolling  prairie.     It  is  .all  under  cultiva- 
tion or  used  for  pasture.     He   feels  the  necessity  of  having  a 
home  supply  of  fence  posts  and  light  fuel.     Thinks  of  putting  his 
wood  lot  on  the  rich  bottom  land.     The  soil  is  a  sandy  drift, 
some  ridges  being  more  sandy  than  others,  and  in  a  few  places 
are  bare  from  washing. 

Answer:  Since  the  bottom  land  resists  drouth  better  than  the 
high  land,  it  would  be  better  to  keep  it  for  agricultural  purposes, 
and  to  place  the  trees  on  the  ridges,  where  the  soil  is  too  bare 
to  yield  a  return  from  agriculture.  He  could  probably  plant 
White  Willow  in  these  locations  to  good  advantage,  and  get 
what  he  needs  in  fence  posts  and  a  considerable  amount  of  sum- 
mer fuel.  It  is  probable  that  on  such  land  there  would  be  a 
yield  of  about  three  cords  per  acre  of  fuel  wood  per  year,  much 
of  which  material  could  be  used  for  posts.  These  trees  should 
be  cultivated  until  they  cover  the  land  well.  They  should  begin 
to  yield  some  fuel  within  six  years  from  the  time  cuttings  are 
planted,  if  they  are  set  two  feet  apart  in  rows  eight  feet  apart. 

13.  A  farmer  living  on  the  open  prairie  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  Minnesota  wants  a  windbreak  and  wood  lot;  more  par- 
ticularly  desires   a   windbreak   for   buildings   and   a    shelter   for 
stock.     Does  not  think  of  raising  firewood   or  his   own  fence 
posts.     Can  a  windbreak  be  worked  to  advantage  as  a  wood  lot 
in  such  a  case? 

Ansiver:  Under  such  conditions  the  windbreak  should  be 
made  somewhat  wider  than  recommended  on  page  50,  so  as  to 
include  as  much  area  as  to  give  the  wood  desired.  In  cutting 
under  such  conditions  it  would  be  desirable  to  cut  not  more  than 
one-half  of  any  portion  of  the  windbreak  at  one  time,  so  that  its 
value  as  a  windbreak  would  not  be  impaired  at  any  time.  Work- 
ing in  such  a  way  would  require  a  rotation  period  of  about  ten 
years.  It  would  probably  be  best  to  plant  this  largely  with 
White  Willow,  but  if  the  soil  is  heavy  or  somewhat  inclined  to 
be  moist  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  put  in  some  Soft  Maple  and 
Boxelder. 


160  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

14.  What  kinds  of  trees  are  best  adapted  to  use  for  live  fence 
posts?     Should  the  wires  be  nailed  directly  to  the  tree,  or  on 
blocks  of  wood  which  are  fastened  to  the  tree? 

Answer:  Probably  the  best  tree  for  a  live  fence  post  is  one 
of  the  willows  or  other  hardy  tree.  Where  the  White  Willow 
is  used  for  this  purpose  there  is  no  special  objection  to  nailing 
the  wire  directly  to  the  tree,  except  that  the  tree  will  soon  grow 
over  the  wire,  and  it  cannot  then  be  removed.  If  it  is  thought 
that  the  wire  might  be  removed  within  a  few  years,  it  would  be 
much  the  better  plan  to  nail  it  onto  blocks  of  wood  which  are 
nailed  to  the  tree.  Willow  trees  which  are  used  in  this  way  as 
live  fence  posts  may  be  cut  off  about  a  foot  above  the  top  wire 
and  allowed  to  reproduce  themselves.  Such  trees,  if  properly 
managed,  will  often  produce  a  large  amount  of  firewood,  as  well 
as  afford  good  fence  posts. 

15.  We  have  thirty  acres  of  rather  wet  land  which  we  do  not 
expect  to  use  for  many  years  except  as  pasture.     Would  it  pay 
to  grow  some  White  Willows  on  a  portion  of  it,  and  would  they 
interfere  with  its  value  as  pasture? 

Answer:  If  the  land  is  not  heavily  pastured,  it  might  be  a 
good  plan  to  grow  a  few  groups  of  willow  on  it,  as  they  will 
furnish  some  protection  to  the  stock,  and  do  not  interfere 
materially  with  the  pasturage  value  of  the  land.  Scattered  trees 
might  also  be  grown,  as  they  would  not  seriously  interfere  with 
the  growth  of  grass  under  them  where  the  land  is  moist;  but  it 
would  not  be  desirable  to  encourage  a  very  thick  growth  on  the 
land,  since  it  is  much  more  valuable  for  pasturage  than  it  would 
probably  be  for  growing  wood. 

16.  B.  has  come  into  possession  of  fifty  acres  of  bluff  land 
along  the  Mississippi  river,  in  Southern  Minnesota.     The  bnd  is 
of  good  quality,  but  too  much  broken  for  agriculture,  and  when 
used  as  pasture  it  washes  badly.     The  southern  slopes  are  nearly 
bare  of  trees,  but  the  other  slopes  are  well  covered  with  White 
Oak,  Hard  Maple,  Basswood  and  Elm,  with  some  Hackberry, 
Wild  Black  Cherry,  Black  Walnut  and  Butternut.     It  has  been 
pastured  for  twenty  years,  and  consequently  there  are  no  young 
trees  coming  on.     He  desires  to  preserve  it  as  a  wood  lot,  since 
it  has  become  of  little  value  for  pasture. 

Answer:     The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  out  the  cattle,  as 


FOREST  PROBLEMS.  161 

i 

they  destroy  all  the  young  seedlings  that  start,  and  prevent  any 
natural  regeneration.  In  good  seed  years  it  might  pay  to  loosen 
the  soil,  where  it  could  be  done  easily,  in  portions  that  are  not 
especially  liable  to  erosion,  so  as  to  give  the  seeds  that  fall  a 
good  chance  to  grow.  It  would  also  be  well  to  gather  Black 
Walnuts  and  Acorns,  and  plant  them  in  especially  favorable  loca- 
tions. Improvement  cuttings  should  also  be  made  where  needed. 

17.  A.  has  five  acres  of  overflow  lands  along  the  Mississippi 
river.     This  is  about  four  feet  above  the  low  water  mark.     It  is, 
however,  so  liable  to  freshets  in  the  spring  that  it  would  not  be 
safe  to  use  it  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  it  is  not  desirable 
for  pasture  or  meadow.     It  is  now  covered  with  a  heavy  growth 
of  White  Maple  and  Cottonwood,  and  some  White  and  Red  Elm. 
What  is  the  best  way  of  managing  it? 

Answer:  It  would  seem  quite  probable  that  the  White  Maple 
will  become  the  most  valuable  wood  of  any  now  on  the  land,  and 
it  should  be  encouraged  by  cutting  out  the  Cottonwood  wherever 
it  crowds,  and  also  the  White  and  Red  Elm.  The  aim  should  be 
to  have  a  good  stand  of  White  Maple,  as  it  seems  probable  that 
this  will  produce  by  far  the  most  profit.  This  tree  makes  a  very 
rapid  growth  on  good  soil,  and  the  wood  is  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes.  If  the  maples  do  not  thickly  cover  the  ground, 
there  may  be  some  chance  for  good  pasturage  under  the  trees; 
but  under  the  best  conditions  there  would  be  no  opportunity  for 
pasturage.  This  land  would  possibly  yield  about  500  feet  board 
measure  per  acre  per  year  if  well  stocked.  Such  land  will  proba- 
bly be  used  for  meadow  when  the  country  is  better  settled,  but 
this  is  perhaps  no  objection  to  using  it  for  growing  maple  for  the 
next  twenty  years. 

18.  A.  has  a  piece  of  gravelly  land.     It  was  originally  covered 
with  a  growth  of  Bur,  White,  Red  and  Scarlet  Oak,  but  was  cut 
over  about  thirty  years  ago,  and  at  present  has  a  rather  thin 
stand   of   stunted  trees,   many   of  which   are   sprouts   from   Bur 
Oaks.     It  is  burned  over  every  year.     The  land  is  of  very  little 
value  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Answer:     On  such  land  the  increase  is  very  little,  and  there 

will  be  no  profit  in  holding  it  for  tree  growth  if  it  is  taxed  at  a 

high  rate.     If,  however,  the  rate  of  taxation  is  low,  it  is  quite 

likely  that  the  trees  will  yield  a  fairly  good  return.     It  should  be 

11 


162  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

the  aim  of  the  owner  to  keep  out  fires,  and  so  encourage  the 
growth  of  underbrush  and  leaf  mold,  as  this  protects  from  dry- 
ing out  in  summer,  which  is  important  on  such  land.  The  large 
trees  that  are  decaying  had  better  be  cut  out,  and  the  younger 
growth  favored  by  occasional  thinnings,  where  too  much 
crowded. 

19.  A.   has  a  meadow  which  is  subject  to   overflow  in  the 
spring  of  the  year.     The  stream  which  runs  through  it  is  liable 
to  sudden  rises,  and  has  made  many  channels  for  itself,  and  is 
continually  making  new  channels.     The  land  affords  fairly  good 
pasturage,   but  the   cutting  of  new   channels  by  the   river   is   a 
source  of  great  annoyance  and  loss.     Is  there  any  way  that  this 
can  be  prevented  by  planting  trees? 

Answer:  Such  streams  may  be  permanently  straightened  out 
by  planting  willows  across  the  cuts  made,  so  as  to  confine  the 
waters  to  a  straight  course.  By  this  treatment  a  stream  soon 
clears  out  a  deeper  main  channel  for  itself,  and  the  old  high 
water  channels  gradually  fill  up  with  the  sediment  from  the  water 
which  sets  back  into  them' from  the  river  at  times  of  freshet. 
The  banks  of  the  stream  should  also  be  protected  from  washing 
by  planting  willows  on  them.  For  this  purpose  willow  cuttings 
of  large  size  should  preferably  be  used.  They  should  be  not  less 
than  two  inches  in  diameter  and  six  feet  long,  and  be  put  at 
least  three  feet  in  the  ground  where  exposed  to  erosion. 

20.  A.  has  forty  acres  near  Minneapolis,  covered  mostly  with 
a  heavy  stand  of  Sugar  Maple,  twenty-five  years  old,  and  two  or 
three  acres  of  Tamarack,  Elm,  Basswood  and  Oak.    What  treat- 
ment would  be  more  profitable  than  to  clear  up  for  pasture  or 
other  purposes? 

Answer:  Such  land  as  this  is  probably  much  more  valuable 
for  agricultural  purposes  than  for  forestry,  unless  it  is  stony  or 
on  steep  hillsides,  for  the  tree  growth  indicates  a  strong,  valua- 
ble soil,  and  its  being  located  near  a  large  city  should  enhance  its 
value  for  dairying-  or  similar  purposes. 

21.  Some  neglected  lowlands  have  become  partially  covered 
with  Cottonwoods  and  Willows,  some  of  which  are  a  foot  or  more 
in  diameter.     These  trees  are  in  irregular  patches,  covering  per- 
haps two-thirds  of  the  tract.     The  lowest  places  are  quite  wet 
and  boggy.     What  income  might  be  derived  from  a  careful  man- 
agement of  the  growing  wood? 


FOREST  PROBLEMS.  163 

Answer:  Very  little  profit  can  come  from  it  in  its  present 
condition,  except  as  it  may  be  useful  for  pasturage.  If,  on  fur- 
ther consideration,  it  is  decided  that  it  will  be  more  valuable  for 
forestry  purposes  than  for  pasturage,  it  would  probably  be  best 
to  encourage  a  growth  oi  White  Maple,  the  seeds  of  which  could 
be  sown  in  furrows  or  in  patches  in  June.  The  Cottonwood 
should  be  kept  out  as  much  as  possible,  as,  since  it  is  well 
adapted  to  this  class  of  soil,  it  is  liable  to  drive  out  everything 
else,  and  there  is  very  little  profit  from  the  growing  of  it. 

22.  B.  has  forty  acres  of  land  covered  with  Maple,  White 
Oak,  Birch,  Hackberry  and  Elm.  He  cuts  his  fuel  from  it,  and 
makes  sugar  from  the  Maple  each  year,  and  finds  it  fairly  profit- 
able. There  are,  however,  no  young  trees  coming  on,  the  ground 
being  entirely  bare,  and  it  looks  as  though  in  the  course  of  time 
the  old  trees  would  ripen  up,  and  there  would  be  nothing  to 
take  their  places.  The  land  is  so  rough  that  it  would  not  be 
profitable  for  agriculture  nor  especially  desirable  for  pasturage. 

Answer:  The  reason  why  there  is  no  young  growth  coming 
on  is  probably  because  the  land  is  closely  pastured,  since  the 
foliage  of  the  Maple,  Elm,  Birch  and  Oak  is  readily  eaten  by 
stock.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  out  the  cattle,  so  that  the 
young  seedlings  may  have  a  chance  to  become  established.  If 
the  leaf  canopy  is  rather  thin,  so  that  the  light  has  encouraged 
the  growth  of  grass  under  the  trees,  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to 
break  up  the  soil  just  before  the  seed  falls  in  good  years.  Possi- 
bly furrows  could  be  made  through  the  woodland  with  a  plow, 
but  if  too  rough  for  this,  then  it  can  be  broken  up  by  the  drag- 
ging of  several  logs  tied  together  over  the  land.  It  would  be  a 
good  plan  to  keep  out  everything  but  the  Sugar  Maples,  since 
these  will  undoubtedly  be  the  most  profitable,  both  for  sugar  and 
for  fuel.  As  these  seedlings  come  on,  they  should  be  encouraged 
to  cover  the  land,  by  letting  in  a  little  light  occasionally,  if  neces 
sary.  This  may  be  done  by  removing  some  of  the  old  trees  that 
are  past  their  prime.  After  the  young  trees  are  seven  or  eight 
feet  high  no  harm  would  come  from  the  pasturing  of  stock 
among  them  for  a  few  years,  unless  the  land  was  so  heavily 
pastured  that  the  treading  of  the  stock  about  the  roots  was 
injurious.  If  treated  in  this  way  there  should  be  no  trouble 
about  securing  a  good  stand  of  young  Maples  to  come  on  and 
take  the  place  of  those  which  are  maturing. 


CHAPTER  XIL 

THE  USES  OF  WOOD. 

Wood  Serves  so  Many  Purposes  and  enters  so  largely 
into  human  activities  that  it  may  indeed  claim  to  be  the  most 
useful  of  all  natural  products,  excepting  only  food.  Iron  is 
looked  upon  as  the  most  useful  of  metals.  Wood  is  not  a  metal, 
but  in  its  usefulness  it  may  be  placed  above  iron,  which  it  is 
replacing  in  many  cases  where  the  latter  was  formerly  used 
exclusively.  Iron  and  wood  have  displaced  and  replaced  each 
other  in  public  favor  time  and  time  again,  so  that  their  respective 
claims  to  supremacy  have  not  yet  been  decided.  For  instance, 
in  the  manufacture  of  bicycles,  wood  rims  were  first  used,  and 
then  gave  way  to  iron  and  steel  on  account  of  their  lighter 
appearance  and  strength.  Now,  with  better  methods  of  con- 
struction, wood  is  again  in  use,  and  giving  general  satisfaction. 
However,  each  has  its  place,  and  the  two  often  work  to  better 
advantage  in  combination.  Experiments  have  shown  that  in 
tensile  strength  hickory  exceeds  iron  and  steel  of  the  same 
length  and  weight,  and  hickory  and  long-leaf  pine  resist  greater 
endwise  compression  than  wrought  iron.  The  elasticity  of  wood 
enables  it  to  yield  to  greater  stress  than  metals  without  receiving 
permanent  distortion,  and  in  like  manner  it  will  resist  high  tem- 
peratures without  warping,  holding  its  shape  until  consumed  or 
broken  down  by  mere  weight. 

In  Comparison  with  Iron,  Wood  is  lighter,  easier  to 
work  and  handle,  at  present  cheaper,  and  in  many  cases  stronger 
and  more  durable.  These  facts,  coupled  with  its  abundance  and 
ready  adaptability,  have  brought  it  into  such  extensive  use  that 
the  future  depletion  of  the  supply  has  become  a  matter  of  some 
concern  to  thoughtful  people.  Even  now,  in  many  parts,  the 
local  supply  has  already  been  exhausted  (due  much  to  extrava- 
gance and  carelessness),  and  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  upon 
other  regions  to  furnish  their  wood  material,  at  an  increased 
cost.  Treeless  regions,  formerly  uninhabited,  are  now  teeming 


THE  USES  OF  WOOD.  165 

with  -thriving,  industrious  populations,  whose  standard  of  living 
demands  the  consumption  of  large  quantities  of  wood,  drawn 
from  limited  forest  areas.  The  present  supply  is  rapidly  disap- 
pearing. 

To  give  the  reader  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  manifold 
utility  of  wood,  and  to  impress  upon  him  the  importance  of  main- 
taining a  permanent  source  of  supply  of  this  essential  material, 
we  may  group  its  uses  into  general  classes,  as  an  enumeration  in 
detail  would  be  too  bulky  for  this  volume,  and,  by  sheer  weight, 
fail  of  its  purpose.  In  a  general  way,  wood  is  thought  of  as  use- 
ful for  lumber  and  fuel.  As  firewood  it  heats  our  houses,  cooks 
our  meals,  makes  steam  for  driving  the  engines  which  run  our 
flour  mills,  factories,  light  and  power  plants,  street  cars,  laun- 
dries, etc.  Different  woods  have  their  own  fuel  value,  as  indi- 
cated in  another  chapter;  the  supply  of  different  kinds  varies  in 
localities;  the  price  varies;  so  that  we  cannot  say  that  one  kind 
should  be  used  more  than  another.  Poor  material  must  often  be 
taken  where  none  other  is  available.  In  Minnesota  there  is  in 
the  wooded  regions  a  considerable  variety  of  fuel  woods.  The 
most  common  are,  for  the  hard  woods  (or,  more  properly  speak- 
ing, broad-leaved  trees),  Maple,  Oak,  Elm,  Ash,  Aspen,  Birch, 
Cottonwood  and  Basswood;  and  of  the  conifers  (or  narrow- 
leaved  trees),  Pine,  Tamarack,  Spruce  and  Balsam  Fir. 

As  lumber,  we  may  convert  wood  into  a  yet  more  extensive 
variety  of  channels  of  usefulness,  included  under  the  heads  of 
general  building,  construction  and  wood  working. 

In  Carpentry  rough  material  is  used  in  framework,  as  sills, 
studding,  plates,  joists,  rafters;  in  sheathing,  roofing,  shingles, 
laths;  while  finished  lumber  is  put  into  siding,  floors,  doors,  win- 
dow frames  and  sash,  blinds,  stairways,  stationary  furniture  and 
fixtures,  columns,  moldings,  turned  and  carved  work  (solid  and 
veneer).  All  kinds  of  wood  are  used  for  this  work,  according  to 
the  purpose  and  the  taste  of  the  builder,  but  Pine  in  larger  quan- 
tities than  any  other,  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  ease  of  working 
and  general  utility. 

For  Railways,  wharves,  piers,  bridges,  piling,  etc.,  heavy 
material  is  used;  that  is,  large  pieces.  For  railroad  ties,  bridges, 
pavements  and  culverts  all  kinds  of  wood  may  be  used,  but  those 
best  adapted  to  withstand  the  usage  of  the  position  are  most 
desired. 


16G  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

In  Shipbuilding  ribs,  rib  frames,  keels  and  outside  planking 
take  Oak  or  other  hard  wood,  with  trenails  of  Locust;  while  for 
inside  planking  Pine  is  used,  and  interiors  and  decks  finished  to 
taste  and  usage  with  any  wood. 

In  Joinery,  which  includes  furniture  making,  cabinet  and 
box  work,  packing  cases  and  crates,  all  kinds  of  wood  are  util- 
ized. 

In  the  Making  of  Cars,  wagons  and  carriages  the  frame- 
work is  usually  of  Oak  and  Ash,  with  covering  of  Pine  and  fancy 
woods,  while  the  running  gear  takes  Hickory,  Oak,  Elm,  Ash, 
Locust, — butt  cuts  being  especially  valuable. 

In  Cooperage,  barrels,  casks,  tubs,  kegs,  pails,  churns  and 
tanks  (staves,  heads  and  hoops)  are  made  of  every  description  of 
wood,  but  for  vessels  designed  to  hold  the  finer  grades  of  wet 
goods,  as  liquors  and  wines,  White  Oak  only  is  desired. 

In  the  Manufacture  of  Farm  and  Household  Machinery 
and  implements,  mostly  hard  woods  of  tough,  durable  qualities, 
as  Oak,  Ash,  Hickory  and  Elm,  are  in  demand.  For  wooden- 
ware  (turned,  carved  and  split-ware  goods),  again,  all  kinds  of 
wood  find  a  place.  For  baskets  and  wickerware,  Willows  and 
other  pliable  growths  are  used,  while  sounding  boards  of  pianos 
and  organs  are  almost  always  of  spruce.  In  machine  building, 
cogs,  gears  and  pulleys  are  often  made  of  hard  wood,  while 
frames  of  a  stationary  nature  are  of  Pine. 

Timber  for  Mining  Purposes  is  in  great  demand  in  all 
mining  regions,  and  enormous  quantities  of  it  are  required,  so 
that  the  mines  are  among  the  largest  consumers.  In  this  state 
some  of  the  deep  mines  use  as  much  as  eighty  miles  of  log  tim- 
ber per  year,  besides  lagging.  In  mining,  usually,  the  wood  of 
the  district  is  used  for  props,  lagging,  etc.  The  same  may  be 
said  fencing— the  most  convenient  wood  is  taken. 

Telegraph  Poles  require  sticks  that  are  free  from  large  knots, 
and  which  are  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Cedar  is 
much  used  for  this  purpose.  FlagstafTs  and  masts  call  for  long, 
slender,  yet  resistant,  material. 

In  I/umbering  a  considerable  quantity  of  timber  is  used  in 
roads,  skidways,  booms,  piling,  etc.,  and  a  much  larger  quantity 
of  the  skidway  and  roadway  material  than  is  necessary  is  left  to 
rot  on  the  ground  after  a  season's  work. 


DISTILLATION  OF  WOOD.  107 

Wood  Pulp  and  Distillation  Products.  One  of  the  most 
important  industries  connected  with  forests  is  their  use  for  paper 
pulp.  For  this  purpose  all  kinds  of  wood  may  be  used,  but  on 
account  of  its  superior  quality  and  the  ease  of  working  little  is 
used  in  this  country  at  present  besides  Spruce.  Many  experi- 
ments have  been  made  with  Poplar,  and  it  also  is  used  to  some 
extent,  but  Spruce  is  very  much  preferred  on  account  of  its  bet- 
ter fiber.  Paper  pulp  is  made  in  two  ways:  First,  chemical; 
second,  mechanical.  Chemical  pulp  is  made  by  treating  the  tis- 
sues of  the  wood  with  chemicals  which  dissolve  out  the  lignin 
substances  until  only  the  cellulose  or  pulp  is  left.  There  are  sev- 
eral processes  used,  one  of  which  is  by  boiling  the  wood  in  Glau- 
ber salts  for  seven  hours,  after  which  the  pulp  is  washed  clean 
and  bleached  with  chloride  of  lime  until  quite  white.  This 
process  is  more  expensive  than  the  sulphite  process,  in  which  sul- 
phurous acid  is  used,  but  is  said  to  give  a  better  product.  All 
kinds  of  wood  may  be  converted  into  chemical  pulp,  but  very 
dark  colored  and  very  resinous  kinds  are  usually  avoided.  Ordi- 
nary paper  pulp  is  made  by  grinding  Spruce  wood  on  large 
stones,  against  which  it  is  pressed  by  hydraulic  power.  For  the 
manufacture  of  very  tough  paper  and  of  leather  board  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  boil  the  wood  a  long  time  before  it  is  ground.  Wood 
that  is  cooked  a  long  time  before  grinding  makes  a  dark  colored 
but  very  tough  product.  In  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  print- 
ing paper  the  wood  is  put  at  once  upon  the  stone,  and  the  pulp 
from  it  is  rolled  into  paper.  It  is  customary  to  mix  a  certain  per 
cent  of  chemically  prepared  paper  pulp  with  ordinary  wood  pulp 
in  order  to  improve  its  strength.  Wood  pulp  is  not  only  manu- 
factured into  paper,  but  boards,  buckets,  car  wheels,  and  a  thou- 
sand other  things,  are  made  from  it.  Its  use  is  almost  unlimited. 

By  the  Destructive  Distillation  of  Wood  (all  kinds  of 
wood,  all  sizes, — logs,  refuse,  sawdust)  we  obtain  charcoal,  vine- 
gar, alcohol,  creosote,  gas,  tar;  pyroligeneous,  oxalic,  acetic  and 
other  acids;  acetone,  paraffin,  naphthalin;  lampblack  and  other 
products.  From  the  bark  of  Oak,  Hemlock,  Chestnut  and  other 
trees  the  tannic  acid  used  in  tanning  leather  is  obtained. 

As  we  have  digressed  slightly  by  including  bark  under  the 
term  "wood,"  we  may  go  farther,  and  take  in  also  the  sap  from 
which  is  obtained  turpentine,  resin,  gums  and  rubber,  sugar, 
liquors,  medicines;  the  pith,  which  gives  us  food  and  fiber  for 


168  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

clothing  and  other  purposes;   the  fruit  and  leaves,  which  are  also 
used  for  food,  medicinal  and  chemical  extracts. 

Wood  is  Made  up  of  Cells  which  vary  in  form  and  in 
arrangement  in  different  species.  The  cells  are  arranged  in  the 
form  of  irregular  concentric  cones,  so  that  a  cross  section  of  a 
tree  shows  a  series  of  concentric  rings.  For  ordinary  purposes, 
however,  a  log  may  be  considered  as  being  made  up  of  a  series 
of  concentric  cylinders,  each  cylinder  representing  one  year's 
growth.  If  each  ring  is  examined  closely,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
it  is  made  up  of  an  inner,  softer,  lighter-colored  portion  and  an 
outer  portion  that  is  firmer  and  darker  colored.  The  inner  por- 
tion was  formed  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  when  growth 
was  rapid;  this  portion  is  termed  the  spring  wood.  The  outer 
portion,  where  the  cells  are  packed  firmly  together,  grew  in 
the  summer,  when  the  growth  was  slow,  and  this  is  termed  the 
summer  wood.  Since  the  latter  portion  is  very  heavy  and  firm, 
it  to  a  large  extent  determines  the  weight  and  strength  of  the 
wood. 

Wood  a  Structure.  On  account  of  the  peculiar  arrange- 
ment in  its  structure,  wood  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  homo- 
geneous mass,  but  rather  as  a  mechanical  structure,  the  arrang^ 
ments  of  the  units  of  which  in  each  case  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered in  estimating  its  strength  and  its  value  for  various  pur- 
poses. 

Methods  of  Sawing.  In  sawing  wood  the  relation  of  the 
saw  cut  to  the  annual  rings  is  an  important  matter,  and  its  ref- 
erence in  relation  to  them  has  given  rise  to  the  names  cross- 
cut, tangential  and  quarter-sawing. 

Cross-Cut  Sawing  simply  refers  to  cutting  across  th'e  grain. 
This  method  of  sawing  is  seldom  adopted  other  than  for  pur- 
poses of  division,  but  occasionally  it  is  used  for  making  thin 
veneers,  which  are  used  in  finishing  panels  and  the  like. 

"Through  and  Through,"  or  regular  sawing,  refers  to  the 
ordinary  way  of  sawing  lumber,  in  which  most  of  the  cuts  are 
tangential  to  the  annual  rings. 

Quarter-Sawing  is  sawing  that  is  done  perpendicularly  to 
the  annual  rings  of  the  wood.  Wood  thus  sawed  presents  an 
evenness  of  grain  not  to  be  found  in  wood  tangentially  sawed. 
When  cut  nearly  or  quite  on  the  radius  the  beautiful  silver  grain 
of  some  woods  is  thus  shown  to  the  best  advantage. 


QUARTER  SAWING. 


169 


Quarter-sawed  lumber  presents  a  more  durable  surface  and 
warps  and  shrinks  less  than  that  tangentially  sawed.  If  these 
points  alone  are  the  chief  considerations,  any  wood  is  considered 
quarter-sawed  that  presents  the  edge  of  its  annual  rings  to  its 
surface  at  an  angle  of  not  less  than  forty-five  degrees.  This  is 
done  in  various  ways. 

Figure  44  illustrates  one  method  of  quarter  sawing  such 
woods  as  Yellow  Pine,  which  are  so  sawed  solely  to  increase 
their  strength  arid  wearing  qualities.  Slabs  are  taken  off  the 
four  sides,  then  a  cant  A.  B.  is  removed  by  cutting  to  within  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  heart.  This  cant  is  thrown  back  on  the 
deck.  Then  the  mill  goes  on  sawing  right  through  the  heart  C., 
taking  off  four  to  six  boards,  as  the  case  may  be,  which  are  run 

c 


Figure  44.  Common  method  of 
quarter  sawing  Yellow  Pine  for  floor- 
ing. 


Figure  45.  Showing  method  of 
quarter  sawing  to  bring  out  the  figure 
of  the  wood  to  best  advantage.  The 
log  is  first  quartered,  i,>2,  3  and  4,  and 
each  quarter  is  sawed  as  indicated  by 
lines  in  4. 


through  the  edger  and  have  the  heart  cut  out.  This  leaves  two 
cants  of  the  same  thickness.  The  one  on  the  deck  A.  B.  is  put 
back  on  top  of  the  one  D.  E.  on  the  carriage  and  both  are  cut 
up  together.  Practically  all  of  the  stock  thus  made,  except  the 
boards  taken  off  in  slabbing,  is  edged  grained,  and  if  oak  about 
half  of  it  would  show  a  fair  figure. 

If  Quarter  Sawing  is  Done  for  the  Purpose  of  Bring- 
ing out  the  Silver  Grain  of  the  wood,  as  is  necessary  in  the 
case  of  White  Oak  for  best  effects,  then  the  saw  cut  should 
always  be  made  towards  the  heart  and  on  the  line  of  the  silver 
rays.  This  is  a  much  more  wasteful  process  than  the  former 


170  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

method,  and  requires  very  different  management.  The  more 
nearly  perfect  the  quarter-sawing  is  done  the  more  waste  there 
is,  and  so  it  is  the  object  of  practical  men  to  avoid  the  extremes 
of  perfect  quarter-sawing  (at  great  expense  in  labor  and  mate- 
rial) and  through-and-through  sawing-  (which  is  cheapest  and 
most  economical  of  material).  In  ordinary  quarter-sawing  of 
this  kind  there  is  a  waste  of  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  in  material 
as  compared  with  through-and-through  sawing.  This  waste  is 
found  in  the  feather  edged  pieces  and  bevelled  edges  which  have 
to  be  cut  off,  and  in  the  very  narrow  strips  of  no  value.  Small 
logs  waste  much  more  than  large  logs  in  quarter-sawing.  Most 
sawyers  place  the  minimum  sized  log  that  should  be  used  for 
quarter-sawing  at  twenty-six  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  very 
important  to  have  quarter-sawed  lumber  wide,  as  narrow  stock- 
is  of  comparatively  little  value.  In  ordinary  sawing  there  are 
always  a  few  cuts  made  parallel  to  the  silver  rays  which  have  the 
desired  quarter-sawed  figure. 

In  practice,  several  methods  of  sawing  are  used  to  bring  out 
the  silver  grain.  The  most  common  is  to  quarter  the  logs,  and 
then  saw  each  quarter,  as  shown  by  the  lines  in  Figure  45. 

FUEL  VALUE  OF  WOODS.* 

"The  Relative  Fuel  Values  here  given  are  obtained  by 
deducting  the  percentage  of  ash  from  the  specific  gravity,  and 
are  based  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  real  value  of  the  combus- 
tible material  in  all  woods  is  the  same. 

"It  appears  from  Mr.  Sharpies'  experiments  that  resinous 
woods  give  upwards  of  twelve  per  cent  more  heat  from  equal 
weights  burned  than  non-resinous  woods;  the  heat  produced  by 
burning  a  kilogram  of  dry  non-resinous  wood  being  about  4,000 
units,  while  the  heat  produced  by  burning  a  kilogram  of  dry 
resinous  wood  is  about  4,500  units,  a  unit  being  the  quantity  of 
heat  required  to  raise  one  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  centi- 
grade. 

"Count  Rumford  first  propounded  the  theory  that  the  value 
of  equal  weights  of  wood  for  fuel  was  the  same,  without  reference 
to  specific  distinctions;  that  is,  that  a  pound  of  wood,  whatever 


"This  article  on  the  fuel  value  of  woods  is  taken  from  the  "Report  of 
the  Tenth  Census,"  by  Prcf.  C.   S.  Sargent, 


FUEL  VALUE  OF  WOODS.  173 

the  variety,  would  always  produce  the  same  amount  of  heat. 
Marcus  Bull,  experimenting  in  1826  upon  the  fuel  value  of  dif- 
ferent woods,  found  a  variation  of  only  eleven  per  cent  between 
the  different  species  tested.  Rumford's  theory  must  be  regarded 
as  nearly  correct,  if  woods  are  separated  into  resinous  and  non- 
resinous  classes.  The  specific  gravity  gives  a  direct  means  of 
comparing  heat  values  of  equal  volumes  of  wood  of  different 
resinous  and  non-resinous  species.  In  burning  wood,  however, 
various  circumstances  affect  its  value;  few  fire  places  are  con- 
structed to  fully  utilize  the  fuel  value  of  resinous  woods,  and 
carbon  escapes  unconsumed  in  the  form  of  smoke.  Pine,  there- 
fore, which  although  capable  of  yielding  more  heatf  than  Oak 
or  Hickory,  may  in  practice  yield  considerably  less,  the  Pine 
losing  both  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  the  form  of  smoke,  while 
Hickory  or  Oak,  burning  with  a  smokeless  flame,  is  practically 
entirely  consumed.  The  ash  in  a  wood,  being  non-combustible, 
influences  its  fuel  value  in  proportion  to  its  amount.  The  state 
of  dryness  of  wood  also  has  much  influence  upon  its  fuel  value, 
though  to  a  less  degree  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  water 
in  green  wood  prevents  its  rapid  combustion,  evaporation  reduc- 
ing the  temperature  below  the  point  of  ignition.  Green  wood 
may  often  contain  as  much  as  fifty  per  cent  of  water,  and  this 
water  must  evaporate  during  combustion;  but  as  half  a  kilogram 
of  ordinary  wood  will  give  2,000  units  of  heat,  while  half  a  kilo- 
gram of  water  requires  only  268.5  units  to  evaporate  it,  1,731.5 
units  remain  available  for  generating  heat  in  wood  containing 
even  a  maximum  amount  of  water. 

"A  factor  in  the  general  value  of  wood  as  fuel  is  the  ease  with 
which  it  can  be  seasoned;  Beech,  for  example,  a  very  dense  wood 
of  high  fuel  value  when  dried,  is  generally  considered  of  little 
value  as  fuel,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  it  decays 
when  cut  and  the  consequent  loss  of  carbon  by  decomposition." 


fFrom  a  given  weight. 


172 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


TABLE  OF  TREES  ARRANGED  IN  ORDER  OF  THE  WEIGHT  OF 
DRY  WOOD.f 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 

COMMON  NAMES. 

Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 

Specific 
gravity  of 
absolutely 
dry  wood. 

Crataegus  coccinea  

White  Thorn  

85.85 

0.8618 

Shellbark  Hickory 

83  11 

0  8372 

Hop  Hornbeam  

82  43 

0  8984 

Service-berrv  

0  8962 

77  95 

0  7838 

Black  Thorn 

75  49 

0  7585 

Bitternut  Hickory 

74  74 

0  7552 

White  Oak  

74  39 

0  7470 

Quercus  macrocarpa  
Robinia  pseudacacia   

Bur  Oak  

lyOCUSt  

74.06 
72  96 

0.7453 
0  7333 

Prunus  ntnericana  

Wild  Plum  

73  00 

0  7313 

Black  Haw 

72  82 

0  7303 

Celtis  occidentalis 

Hack  berry 

79  08 

0  7287 

Carpinus  caroliniana  

Blue'  Beech 

72  26 

0  7286 

Ulmus  racemosa  

Cork  Elm 

72  20 

0  7263 

Crataegus  crus-galli  

Cockspur  Thorn  . 

71  54 

0  7194 

70  71 

0  7117 

Quercus  coccinea  

70  82 

0  7095 

Pyrus  coronaria    

Wild  Crab 

70  11 

0  7048 

Ulmus  pubescens  

68  98 

0  6956 

Prunus  virginiana  

Choke  Cherry  

69.16 

0.6951 

Gymnocladus  dioicus  

Coffee  Tree 

68  88 

0  6934 

Acer  saccharum  

68  75 

0  6916 

Acer  platanoides  

0  6800* 

Gleditsia  triacanlhos  

66  86 

0  6740 

Quercus  rubra  

Red  Oak  

66.04 

0.6621 

iTn  this  table  the  figures  relating  to  North  American  species  have  been 
taken  directly  from  or  calculated  from  data  in  Sargent's  Silva  of  North 
America  and  the  report  of  the  Tenth  Census,  and  those  relating  to  Eu- 
ropean species  are  from  various  European  sources. 

*Air  dried. 


WEIGHTS  OF  DRY  WOOD. 


173 


TABLE  OF  TREES  ARRANGED  IN  ORDER  OF  THE  WEIGHT  OF 
DRY  WOOD.     (Continued.) 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 

COMMON  NAMES. 

Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
value. 

Specific 
gravity  of 
absolutely 
dry  wood, 

Betula  lutea    

Yellow  Birch  .    .  . 

65  34 

0  6553 

Fraxinus  americana  

White  Ash  

65  16 

0  6543 

White  Elm 

64  54 

0  6506 

0  6400* 

Fraxinus  nigra  

Black  Ash   

62.72 

0  6318 

Tamarack 

62  16 

0  6318 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica       .... 

Red  Ash 

61  99 

0  6215 

Red  Maple         .   .  . 

61  65 

0  6178 

Black  Walnut 

60  91 

0  6115 

Betula  papyrifera  

Canoe  Birch  

59  40 

0  5955 

Pyrus  sambucifolia  

Elderleaf  Mount'n  Ash 

58  08 

0  5928 

Red  Mulberry 

58  56 

0  5898 

Wild  Black  Cherry 

58  14 

0  5822 

57  42 

0  6762 

0  5700* 

54  08 

0  5451 

A  cer  spicatum   

53  07 

0  5330 

Acer  saccharinum  

Silver  Maple  ... 

52  52 

0  5269 

Pinus  sylvestris  

Scotch  Pine  

0  5200* 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  

Douglas  Spruce  

51  53 

0  5157 

Prunus  pennsylvanica  .  •  
Juniperus  iiirginiana  
Pinus  resinosa   

Wild  Red  Cherry  
Red  Juniper  
Red  Pine 

50.03 
49.11 

48  41 

0.5023 
0.4926 
0  4854 

Populus  alba  

White  Poplar 

0  4800* 

Pinus  divaricata  

Jack  Pine               

47  50 

0  4761 

46  99 

0  4715 

Picea  evcelsa                 .   . 

0  4700* 

Pofulus  grandidenta  

I^argetooth  Poplar  — 

46.11 

0.4632 

*Air  dried. 


174 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


TABLE  OF  TREES  ARRANGED  IN  ORDER  OF  THE  WEIGHT  OF 
DRY  WOOD.     (Continued.) 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 

COMMON  NAMES. 

Approxi- 
mate rela- 
tive fuel 
valne. 

Specific 
gravity  of 
absolutely 
dry  wood. 

Alnus  incana  

Speckled  Alder 

45.88 
45.71 
45.03 
45,00 
44.95 
44.68 

0.4607 
0.4584 
0.4542 
0.4525 
0.4504 
0.4502 
0.4500* 
0.4500* 
0.4456* 
0.4358 
0.4358 
0.4239 
0.4165 
0.4161 
0.4086 
0.4051 
0.4032 
0.8912 
0.3889 
0.3854 
0.3819 
0.3740 
0.3638 
0.3635 
0.3449 
0.3164 

Black  Spruce  . 

^Lsculus  glabra  
Tilia  antericana  

Ohio  Buckeye  
Basswood  

Castanea  dentata  

Chestnut  

Salix  amygdaloides  

Peachleaf  Willow  
White  Willow 

Populus  nigra  
Salix  nigra  
Pinus  flexilis  

Black  Poplar  

Black  Willow 

Western  White  Pine  .  . 
Boxelder  
Hemlock  
Hardy  Catalpa  
Balm  of  Gilead  
Butternut  
White  Spruce  
Aspen  

43.42 
42.82 
42.20 
41.48 
41.42 
40.66 
40.38 
40.10 
38.81 
38.52 
38.47 
38.02 
37.26 
36.07 
36.11 
33.38 
31.53 

Catalpa  speciosa  
Populus  balsamifera  candicans 
Juglans  cinerea.  
Picea  canadensis  

Populus  tremuloides  

Populus  angustifolia  
Populus  deltoides  
Pinus  strobus  

Narrowleaf  Cotton  w'd 
Cottonwood  
White  Pine 

A  bies  balsamea  

Balsam  Fir 

Picea  parryana  

Blue  Spruce 

A  bies  concolor  

White  Fir 

Populus  balsamifera  
Picea  engelmanni 

Balsam  Poplar  

Kngelmann  Spruce  .  . 
ArborvitEe 

Thuja  occidentalis  

*Air  dried. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 

DURABILITY  OF  WOOD. 

Decay  in  Wood  is  due  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  tissues 
by  fungi.  In  some  cases  the  fungus  destroys  the  woody  cells;, 
in  others  it  uses  upMhe  starch  found  in  the  cells  and  merely  leaves 
a  blue  stain  (bluing  of  lumber).  Some  kinds  of  fungi  attack 
only  conifers,  others  only  hard  woods;  some  are  confined  to  one 
species  while  others  may  affect  several  species,  but  probably  no 
one  of  them  attacks  all  kinds  of  wood.  Figure  46  shows  the  dis- 
coloration of  wood  by  a  shelf  fungus.  The  wood  contains  the 
fungus  plant,  which,  when  ready  to  produce  its  spores,  sends  out 
a  shelf-like  body  on  the  side  of  the  wood.  These  shelves  contain 

the  spores  and  may  be  found 
on  many  old  decayed  trees  or 
stumps.  Various  odors  are 
produced  in  the  wood  by  some 
of  these  fungi;  they  may  be 
pleasant,  as  those  found  some- 
times in  the  Oak,  or  unpleas- 
ant, as  those  infesting  some 
of  the  Poplars.  By  studying 
both  the  favorable  and  the 
unfavorable  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  the  rot-producing 
fungi  we  may  learn  the  best 
methods  of  increasing  the 
durability  of  our  woods,  and 
thus  avoid  unnecessary  waste. 
The  soil  and  conditions 
under  which  wood  is  grown 
affect  its  durability.  Conifer- 


Figure  46.  "Shelf"  fungus  on 
the  stem  of  a  Pine  (Hartig). 
(a)  Sound  wood;  (b)  resinous  wood; 

(c)  partly   decayed   wood   or   punk; 

(d)  layer     of     living     spore     tubes; 

(e)  old     spore     tubes     filled     up; 


(/)  fluted  upper  surface  of  the  fruit- 


ous  woods  with  narrow  annual 
rings  are  most  durable,  espe- 
cially when  grown  on  compar- 
atively poor  soils,  in  dense 
forests,  and  at  high  altitudes.  On  the  contrary,  the  hard  woods 


ing  body  of  the  fungus  which  gets 
its  food  through  a  .great  number  of 
fine  threads  (the  mycelium),  its 
vegetative  tissues  penetrating  the 
wood  and  causing  it  to  decay. 


176  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

with  wide  annual  rings  are  most  durable,  and  are  grown  on  the 
low  lands  and  in  isolated  positions.  The  wood  of  most  broad- 
leafed  trees  produced  in  the  open  is  more  durable  than  that  from 
the  dense  forest. 

Sound  Mature  Trees  Yield  More  Durable  Timber  than 
either  young  or  very  old  trees.  A  tree  is  considered  mature 
when  it  ceases  growing  vigorously,  which  condition  is  indicated 
by  the  flattening  out  of  the  crown,  by  dead  branches  in  the 
crown,  and  by  changes  in  the  color  of  the  ba^rk.  It  is  not  indi- 
cated by  size,  since  this  varies  in  the  same  species  according  to 
circumstances.  A  small  tree  poorly  situated  for  growth  may  be 
as  old  or  older  than  a  larger  tree  growing  under  better  condi- 
tions. 

Intense  Coloration  of  the  Heartwood  is  a  measure  of 
durability  in  timber,  and  faintly  colored  heartwood  resembles 
sapwood  in  its  properties,  only  surpassing  it  in  dryness.  The 
tannin  or  coloring  matter  of  heartwood  is  antiseptic.  Where 
heartwood  does  not  change  its  color  or  is  lighter  than  the  sap- 
wood  the  protecting  substances  are  generally  absent,  and  the 
wood  is  therefore  liable  to  decay.  This  is  plainly  shown  in  the 
hollow  trunks  of  willow  and  basswood. 

Sapwood  Contains  More  Ready-Made  Food  in  forms 
acceptable  to  a  great  number  of  kinds  of  fungi  than  the  heart- 
wood.  This  largely  accounts  for  the  fact  that  sapwood  is  much 
more  liable  to  decay  than  heartwood.  This  is  especially  true  in 
the  case  of  Cedar  and  Pine,  where  the  heartwood  is  protected  by 
resinous  substances.  But  when  the  sapwood  is  well  seasoned 
and  heavier  than  the  heartwood  it  lasts  as  long.  Wood  that  has 
been  once  attacked  by  fungi  becomes  predisposed  to  further 
decay. 

The  Time  of  Cutting  Timber  affects  its  durability  only  as 
the  weather  at  the  time  of  cutting  affects  the  curing  process. 
Wood  cut  in  summer  is  generally  affected  by  decay-producing 
fungi,  rapid  fermenting  of  sap,  and  by  bad  checking,  owing  to 
very  rapid  curing  on  the  outside.  As  the  cracks  thus  made  go 
deep  into  the  wood  they  may  increase  the  danger  from  fungi. 
Where  summer-felled  wood  is  worked  up  at  once  and  protected 
by  kiln-drying,  it  lasts  as  long  as  that  cut  at  any  other  season. 

Early  winter  is  probably  the  best  time  to  cut  timber  as 
regards  durability,  since  it  then  seasons  slowly  at  a  time  when 


DURABILITY  OF  WOOD.  17? 

the  rot-producing  fungi  are  not  active,  so  that  it  can  cure  over 
on  the  outside  before  summer.  Many  kinds  of  fungi  and  beetles 
find  a  very  favorable  place  just  under  the  bark  of  logs.  These 
can  be  avoided,  the  curing  of  the  timber  hastened  and  its  dura- 
bility greatly  increased  by  removing  the  bark  soon  after  felling. 
When  trees  are  cut  in  full  leaf  it  is  advantageous  to  let  them  lie 
at  full  length  until  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  wilted  (two  or  three 
weeks)  before  cutting  to  size.  With  conifers  this  is  a  good  prac- 
tice at  any  season,  and  while  not  practical,  yet  theoretically  all 
winter-cut  trees  should  be  left  to  leaf  out  in  the  spring  before 
being  worked.  In  this  way  most  of  the  sap  is  evaporated,  but 
in  the  care  of  timber  that  is  to  go  at  once  into  the  water  these 
precautions  are  not  so  important. 

Heat  (60  Degrees  to  100  Degrees  Fahr.),  Moisture 
and  Air  in  moderate  quantities  produce  conditions  under  which 
wood  quickly  decays.  It  is  on  this  account  that  fence  posts  rot 
off  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  about  such  conditions 
of  heat  and  moisture  are  usually  found  during  several  months  of 
the  year.  For  the  same  reason  what  is  known  as  dry  rot 
destroys  green  floor  joists  or  other  timbers  where  they  are  tightly 
inclosed,  as  under  a  house  without  ventilation,  since  moisture  is 
always  present  in  such  places,  and  the  timber  cannot  dry  out. 
Perfectly  dry  wood  or  that  submerged  in  water  will  last  indefi- 
nitely, and  there  seems  to  be  no  difference  in  different  kinds  of 
wood  under  these  conditions.  Pieces  of  pine  wood  in  good  con- 
dition have  been  found  in  Illinois  buried  to  a  depth  of  sixty  feet 
that  must  have  been  there  for  many  centuries.  Nearly  sound 
pine  logs  are  occasionally  found  in  the  woods  of  this  state, 
where  they  have  a  thick  moss  covering  that  has  kept  them  moist 
and  prevented  their  decay  for  hundreds  of  years.  The  remains 
of  timbers  in  the  piles  of  the  lake  dwellers,  which  must  have 
stood  in  place  two  thousand  years,  are  still  intact.  In  these 
instances  the  wood  was  kept  moist,  and  never  came  in  contact 
with  the  air.  It  is  very  evident,  too,  that  wood  which  is  kept 
in  a  dry  place  does  not  decay,  since  it  may  be  found  in  an  unim- 
paired state  of  preservation  in  some  of  our  very  oldest  buildings. 

In  the  following  table  is  shown  approximately  the  time  fence 
posts  will  last  in  Minnesota.  This  table  is  based  on  practical 
experience  in  this  state: 

12 


178  ELEMENTARY   FORESTRY. 


TABLE   SHOWING    RANGE    OF    DURABILITY    OF    FENCE    POSTS   IN 
MINNESOTA.     (Air  dry.) 

Red  Cedar 30  years 

White  Cedar  (quartered  6-inch  face) 10-15  years 

White  Oak  (6-inch  round) 8  years 

Red  and  Black  Oak 4  years 

Tamarack   (Redwood) 9  years 

Elm    6-7  years 

Ash,  Beech,  Maple 4  years 

Black  Walnut  7-10  years 

White  Willow,  6  inches  in  diameter,  peeled  and  dried.  6-7  years 

Curing  is  one  of  the  most  important  processes  in  its  effect 
on  the  durability  of  wood.  Well  cured  wood  resists  decay  far 
better  than  fresh  wood,  because  it  contains  an  insufficient  amount 
of  water  for  the  growth  of  fungi.  Green  wood  covered  with 
paint  before  it  is  dry  is  often  destroyed  by  dry  rot,  since  this 
fungus  finds  abundant  moisture  under  the  paint  and  the  protec- 
tion which  was  intended  for  the  wood  really  protects  its  enemy, 
the  fungus.  Paint  and  other  wood-protecting  compounds  are 
efficient  only  when  they  are  applied  to  dry  material,  which  they 
preserve  by  protecting  them  from  moisture.  But  fence  posts  or 
other  timber  to  be  used  in  moist  places,  if  well  cured,  will,  even 
if  not  protected,  last  much  longer  than  fresh  cut  timber.  The 
amount  of  moisture  in  wood,  then,  is  the  most  important  factor 
in  influencing  its  durability. 

Timber  is  Best  Cured  Under  Cover,  where  it  is  pro- 
tected from  the  sun  and  the  full  force  of  the  wind,  but  has  a 
good  circulation  of  air.  If  piled  in  the  open,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
shade  it.  When  piling  green  or  wet  timber,  place  lath  or  other 
strips  of  wood  of  uniform  size  under  each  log,  post  or  tie.  In 
piling  sawed  lumber  the  lath  should  be  placed  at  the  ends,  as  in 
this  position  they  in  a  measure  prevent  checking  on  the  ends. 

From  twelve  to  eighteen  months  is  generally  sufficient  to  cure 
wood  for  ordinary  use,  while  for  special  work  ten  or  more  years 
may  occasionally  be  required.  If  green  or  wet  timber  is  closely 
piled  in  warm  weather  it  is  likely  to  rot.  The  best  method  of 
curing  timber  without  resorting  to  the  use  of  expensive  appa- 
ratus is  to  work  it  up  at  once  and  soak  it  in  water  for  from  one 
to  three  weeks  to  remove  the  sap  from  the  outside  of  the  wood. 


COATINGS  FOR  WOOD.  179 

It  will  then  season  more  quickly  and  be  more  durable  than  when 
dried  without  soaking.  Sometimes  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
thus  water  season  large  timbers,  as  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  sap 
out  of  them  by  atmospheric  seasoning.  Large  checks  or  cracks 
in  the  ends  of  logs  or  other  timber  of  large  dimension  may  be 
avoided  or  greatly  lessened  by  painting  the  ends  with  linseed  oil 
mixed  with  ground  charcoal  or  other  material  to  give  it  con- 
sistency. Covering  with  cloth  or  tarred  paper  also  lessens  check- 
ing. 

Good  Coatings  for  Wood  consist  of  oily  or  resinous 
substances  that  are  easily  applied  in  a  smooth  coat  and  dry 
readily,  yet  do  not  have  any  tendency  to  crack  or  peel  off.  They 
should  be  applied  to  the  whole  exposed  surface. 

Coal  Tar  is  one  of  the  best  materials  for  covering  wood  to 
increase  its  durability.  It  is  best  applied  hot,  especially  if  mixed 
with  oil  of  turpentine,  as  it  then  penetrates  more  deeply.  A 
mixture  of  three  parts  coal  tar  and  one  part  unsalted  grease,  to 
prevent  the  tar  from  drying  too  quickly  so  it  may  penetrate  the 
wood  better,  is  recommended.  One  barrel  of  coal  tar  will  cover 
from  two  to  three  hundred  posts  if  it  is  properly  applied. 

Oil  Paints  are  next  in  value.  Boiled  linseed  oil  is  used 
with  lead,  pulverized  charcoal,  or  other  similar  material,  to  give 
it  substance.  Soaking  the  dry  wood  in  crude  petroleum  is  also 
recommended. 

I/ime  Whitewash  is  a  good  preventive  of  decay  in  wood 
and,  although  not  as  good  for  this  purpose  as  coal  tar,  it  is  very 
desirable.  As  with  all  other  preservatives  that  are  applied  to  the 
surface,  the  wood  should  be  very  dry  before  it  is  applied,  and 
the  wash  should  be  applied  evenly  over  all  the  exposed  parts.  It 
is  on  account  of  the  lime  that  washes  out  of  the  mortar  that  the 
shingles  on  a  roof  just  below  the  chimney  last  longer  than  on 
other  parts  of  the  roof.  But  if  whitewash  is  to  be  applied  to 
shingles  it  should  be  applied  before  they  are  laid  by  dipping. 

Charring  those  parts  of  posts  or  timbers  which  come  in 
contact  with  the  ground  is  a  good  preventive,  provided  a  thick 
layer  of  charcoal  is  formed  and  the  work  so  carefully  done  as  not 
to  cause  the  timber  to  crack,  since  deep  cracking  exposes  the 
interior  to  decay.  If  not  carefully  done  the  timber  may  be 
seriously  weakened. 


180  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Antiseptics.  The  impregnating  of  timber  with  sulphate  of 
copper  (blue  stone),  sulphate  of  iron  (green  copperas),  chloride 
of  zinc,  creosote,  salts  of  mercury,  or  other  similar  material,  has 
the  effect,  when  properly  done,  of  greatly  increasing  its  dura- 
bility. Such  antiseptic  substances  have  the  power  of  destroying 
the  rot-producing  fungi.  The  materials  are  often  applied  to  fresh 
logs.  If  dry  timber  is  to  be  treated,  it  is  first  boiled  or  steamed 
to  open  the  cells.  A  hollow  cap  connected  with  a  force  pump 
is  placed  over  one  end,  and  the  liquid  forced  through  the  cap  into 
the  wood,  which  results  in  forcing  out  the  sap  at  the  opposite 
end  and  replacing  it  with  the  antiseptic,  but  the  more  common 
method  is  that  described  below  as  the  treatment  given  in  im- 
pregnating railroad  ties  in  Europe.  All  the  antiseptics  mentioned 
have  been  used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose,  but  for  various 
reasons  chloride  of  zinc  is  now  most  generally  used.  Railroad 
longer  than  those  not  so  treated.  Impregnation  also  to  some 
extent  renders  wood  fire-proof. 

Iron  Railroad  Ties.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  thought  prob- 
able that  iron  railroad  ties  would  come  into  general  use  in 
Europe,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  Oak  ties.  They  have,  however, 
been  found  to  give  a  very  unyielding  road  bed,  and  are  not  gen- 
erally liked,  and  are  seldom  used  for  more  than  a  short  distance 
at  railroad  stations.  The  disposition  now  is  to  substitute  impreg- 
nated Beech  ties  for  iron,  and  the  successful  impregnation  of  this 
wood,  causing  it  to  become  quite  durable,  has  had  a  large  effect 
in  doing  away  with  iron  ties. 

The  Impregnation  of  Beech  Wood  for  railway  ties  is  a 
large  industry  in  Europe.  Without  impregnation  Beech  is  one 
of  the  least  durable  of  woods)  but  by  modern  impregnation  meth- 
ods it  can  be  made  to  last  at  least  fifteen  years  in  any  soil,  and  it 
is  customary  for  concerns  engaged  in  this  business  to  warrant  the 
durability  of  their  impregnated  ties  for  twelve  years.  Pine  and 
Oak  ties  are  not  impregnated. 

The  process  commonly  followed  in  many  parts  of  Germany 
is  about  as  follows:  A  large  boiler-like  tank  is  provided,  which 
is  about  six  feet  in  diameter  and  forty  to  one  hundred  feet  long. 
This  is  made  with  heads  that  can  be  securely  and  tightly  bolted 
on.  It  also  has  a  small  track  for  the  cars  which  carry  the  ties. 
Before  treatment  the  ties  are  mortised  to  receive  the  rail  plates. 
After  the  tank  is  filled  with  cars  loaded  with  ties  the  steam  is 


IMPREGNATION   OF  WOOD.  181 

turned  on  for  one  to  three  hours,  with  a  pressure  of  about  twen- 
ty-five pounds.  This  treatment  softens  the  wood  and  dissolves 
the  sap.  The  air  is  then  pumped  out  of  the  tank,  which  removes 
the  sap  from  the  ties  and  leaves  a  vacuum.  When  this  has  been 
completed  and  the  vacuum  made,  the  impregnating  material  is 
added  under  a  pressure  of  about  120  pounds.  This  forces  the 
impregnating  material  into  the  cells  of  the  wood.  The  preserva- 
tive material  used  is  made  up  one-third  of  a  three  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  zinc  and  two-thirds  of  dead  oil  (creosote  oil). 
Chloride  of  zinc  was  formerly  used  alone,  but  it  was  found  that 
it  washed  out  after  a  few  years,  where  the  wood  was  laid  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground,  and  thus  the  wood  was  liable  to  decay; 
but  by  the  addition  of  dead  oil,  which  is  itself  a  good  antiseptic, 
the  cells  of  the  wood  were  effectually  sealed  over  and  water  pre- 
vented from  entering,  and  thus  the  chloride  of  zinc  was  pro- 
tected and  the  process  made  more  permanent.  The  cost  of  thi? 
treatment  in  Hessen,  Germany,  is  estimated  at  about  twenty-two 
cents  per  tie. 

Among  the  other  processes  for  the  preservation  of  wood  are 
the  following: 

Kyanifcing  Process.  In  this  the  ties  are  steeped  in  a  solu- 
tion of  bichloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate),  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  one  part  bichloride  to  one  hundred  parts,  by 
weight,  of  water.  The  time  required  for  this  process  is  about 
one  whole  day  for  each  inch  in  thickness.  This  material  is  an 
active  poison,  and  must  be  handled  carefully.  It  has  given  excel- 
lent satisfaction  in  the  preservation  of  timber  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  but  soon  corrodes  metal  in  contact  with  it. 

Boucherie  Process.  In  this  process  the  timber  is  impreg- 
nated with  a  one  per  cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  either 
by  pressure  in  a  closed  vessel,  or  by  applying  it  to  the  end  of  the 
tie  or  log  and  forcing  it  through.  This  is  an  excellent  antisep- 
tic, and  is  said  to  have  doubled  the  life  of  the  Pine  ties  in  Europe. 

Creosoting.  This  process  is  very  extensively  used,  and  has 
given  excellent  satisfaction.  -The  material  is  what  is  known  as 
dead  oil,  of  coal  tar,  and  is  obtained  by  distilling  coal.  Naph- 
thaline is  its  principal  preservative.  A  similar  oil,  known  as 
wood  creosote  oil,  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  Pine  wood, 
but  is  said  to  be  much  more  soluble  than  the  dead  oil,  and  on 


182  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

this  account  more  liable  to  wash  out  of  the  wood  when  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil. 

£inc  Tannin  Process.  In  this  process  the  chloride  of  zinc 
is  protected  from  being  washed  out  of  the  ties  by  coagulated 
albumen.  The  process  is  as  follows:  The  ties  are  impregnated 
with  chloride  of  zinc  mixed  with  a  small  percentage  of  dissolved 
glue.  They  are  then  subjected  to  heavy  pressure,  after  which  the 
solution  is  drawn  off  and  a  tannin  solution  added  at  a  pressure 
of  100  pounds.  This  material  combines  with  the  glue,  and  forms 
a  leathery,  waterproof  substance  which  permanently  closes  the 
pores  or  outer  cells  of  the  wood,  excluding  moisture  and  retain- 
ing the  zinc. 

Burnettifcing.  In  this  process  the  timber  is  impregnated 
with  chloride  of  zinc,  the  operation  being  similar  to  that  of  creo- 
soting.  It  has  a  wonderful  preservative  effect  upon  the  timber, 
the  only  objection  to  it  being  that  the  solution  is  liable  to  be 
washed  out  of  the  ties.  This  is  overcome  in  the  modern  treat- 
ment of  the  ties  in  Germany  by  using  a  certain  per  cent  of  dead 
oil  with  it,  as  previously  noted  in  describing  the  method  of 
impregnating  railroad  ties. 

Fire-Proof  Wood.  It  has  been  known  for  many  years  that 
wood  could  be  made  fire  proof  by  filling  it  with  certain  chemicals 
in  much  the  same  way  that  railway  ties  are  impregnated.  The 
most  common  chemical  used  for  this  purpose  was  phosphate  of 
ammonia,  and  it  is  perhaps  the  best  material  for  this  purpose 
that  has  ever  been  used,  but  it  is  so  expensive  that  the  use  of  it 
is  quite  impracticable.  The  next  best  material  that  has  been  used 
for  this  purpose  is  sulphate  of  ammonia,  but  like  phosphate  of 
ammonia  this  somewhat  injures  the  flexibility  of  the  fiber  and 
corrodes  metal,  and  in  addition  deadens  the  color  and  causes  the 
wood  to  be  more  hydroscopic.  These  chemicals,  either  alone  or 
combined,  have  given  some  very  good  results,  but  have  not  been 
entirely  satisfactory.  They  have  been  used  in  fire-proofing  war- 
ships, where  great  results  have  sometimes  been  realized,  as,  nota- 
bly, in  the  war  between  China^and  Japan,  where  this  treatment  is 
said  to  have  given  Japan  a  great  advantage  in  the  greatest  naval 
battle  of  that  war.  If  a  fire-proofing  process  were  discovered 
that  combined  the  merits  of  cheapness  without  injuriously  affect- 
ing the  qualities  of  the  wood,  it  would  be  much  sought  after,  and 


FIRE  PROOF  WOOD.  183 

its  application  would  be  almost  endless.  In  order  to  be  effective 
such  a  process  must  not  only  be  cheap,  but  must  not  prevent  the 
wood  from  holding  paint  varnish  and  glue  well,  nor  injure  its 
fiber,  nor  corrode  metal  in  contact  with  it  nor  tools  used  in  work- 
ing it,  neither  must  it  increase  its  tendency  to  absorb  moisture. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FOREST   ECONOMICS. 

Alarm  About  Destruction  of  Forests !  For  many  years 
the  attention  of  the  people  of  this  country  has  been  drawn  to  the 
possibility  of  a  depletion  of  our  forests  and  a  timber  famine  in 
the  near  future.  But  increased  transportation  facilities  have 
made  new  sources  of  timber  easily  accessible  to  us,  which  fact, 
together  with  the  use  of  inferior  kinds  of  trees  for  lumber,  has 
kept  the  predicted  timber  famine  from  materializing,  until  now 
our  people  have  become  skeptical  on  this  point,  and  look  upon 
these  predictions  as  very  premature.  To  any  one  who  carefully 
studies  the  subject,  however,  it  will  be  very  evident  that  our 
supply  of  White  Pine,  that  most  generally  useful  of  all  our  timber 
trees,  is  fast  decreasing,  and  that  it  cannot  be  many  years  before 
this  will  be  apparent  by  the  advance  of  prices  for  this  kind  of 
timber.  Most  of  the  land  of  good  quality  in  Minnesota  seems 
destined  to  be  eventually  used  for  farming  purposes,  but  there 
will  always  remain  a  large  area  of  stony  or  very  sandy  land  that 
will  be  unfit  for  profitable  agriculture,  and  which  will  produce 
more  revenue  when  used  for  the  production  of  timber  than  when 
used  for  any  other  crop.  There  is  also  a  large  amount  of  land 
that  will  not  be  needed  for  farming  purposes  for  many  years,  and 
this  should  grow  timber  until  needed  for  agriculture.  Besides 
this,  with  the  increased  value  of  fuel,  lumber  and  other  forest 
products,  there  will  come  a  better  appreciation  of  the  importance 
of  farm  wood  lots  as  a  source  of  fuel,  poles,  lumber,  etc.,  for 
farm  use,  and  a  more  general  disposition  to  save  some  land  for 
this  purpose. 

Price  of  Fuel.  At  present  in  the  greater  part  of  our  for- 
ested area  north  of  St.  Paul  the  timber  is  greatly  in  the  way  of 
settlers,  and  the  price  of  fuel  is  simply  the  cost  of  gathering  it, 
no  charge  whatever  being  made  for  the  wood  itself.  This  state 
of  things  exists  because  not  only  in  the  forests  but  more  espe- 
cially in  the  great  area  of  cut-over  timber  lands  in  that  section 
there  is  such  an  immense  amount  of  dead  and  down  timber  that 


VALUE  OF  FOREST  INDUSTRIES.  185 

it  is  seriously  in  the  way  and  far  in  excess  of  the  fuel  demands 
of  the  settlers  on  those  lands  for  a  score  of  years  to  come.  There 
seems  to  be  something  incongruous  in  the  fact  that  while  one- 
half  of  our  state  is  prairie,  and  sadly  in  want  of  fuel  and  othei 
forest  supplies,  the  other  half  has  such  a  superabundance  of 
these  products  that  they  are  going  to  waste,  and  only  a  small 
portion  is  considered  worth  marketing. 

Value  of  Forest  Industries  of  Minnesota.  The  market- 
ing of  the  products  of  the  virgin  forest  in  Minnesota  has  added 
greatly  to  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  state,  and  under 
proper  management  this  source  of  wealth  would  continue  indefi- 
nitely. The  value  of  the  forests  of  Minnesota  is  most  easily  seen 
by  showing  the  number  of  men  employed.  According  to  the 
report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor,  there  were  employed  in  logging, 
in  the  year  1899-1900,  15,886  men  and  8,285  horses.  The  average 
time  of  the  men  was  about  twenty  weeks.  They  were  employed 
in  329  camps,  and  cut  1,112,000,000  feet  board  measure.  The 
total  wages  was  $2,988,900,  besides  board,  or  about  $4,180,000, 
including  board. 

In  the  wood-working  industries,  the  following  men  were 
employed  in  the  year  1000: 

Sash  and  door  manufacturers 1,186 

Sawmills,  shingle  and  lath  mills '  9J79 

Planing  mills  1,707 

Rattan  and  willow  works 48 

Paper  mills  229 

Lumber  yards 276 

Wood-working  shops   830 

Furniture  and  fixtures 1,405 

Cooperage 772 

Box  manufacturing   356 


Total   15-988 

Making  a  total  in  the  wood-working  and  lumbering  industries, 
besides  carpenters  and  builders,  of  31,874  men  employes. 

Possibilities  of  Yield  of  Our  Forest  Area.  The  best 
authorities  agree  that  the  normal  annual  increase  on  our  12,000.- 
ooo  acres  of  forest  area  should  be  about  2,000,000,000  feet  board 


186  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

measure,  or  a  mean  annual  increase  of  185  feet  board  measure 
per  acre.  If  this  were  true,  it  would  leave  a  wide  margin  to  our 
present  annual  timber  cut  without  impairing  our  normal  growing 
stock.  In  other  words,  this  great  lumber  industry,  of  so  much 
value  to  the  state,  would  be  continued  indefinitely  under  normal 
conditions.  But  there  is  practically  no  timber  land  in  this  state 
under  normal  conditions,  and  there  is  little  or  no  increase  on  the 
far  greater  part  of  our  cut-over  timber  lands.  On  this  account 
the  continuance  of  our  lumber  industry  is  not  hoped  for  by  those 
engaged  in  it.  In  other  words,  we  are  working  our  timber 
resources  as  though  they  were  a  mine  which  can  never  be 
restocked. 

The  timber  lands  of  all  civilized  countries  have  passed  through 
about  the  same  wasteful  conditions  as  those  which  now  prevail 
here.  While  this  does  not  justify  the  present  deplorable  situation 
here,  it  shows  us  that  the  trouble  we  are  suffering  from  is  a  com- 
mon one,  that  will  right  itself  with  increased  population  and 
proper  education.  Previous  to  1700  the  forests  of  Germany  were 
in  much  the  same  condition  as  those  here  at  present,  and  a 
square  mile  of  forest  land  could  be  bought  for  the  present  price 
of  one  of  the  oaks  planted  at  that  time.  Our  people  are  simply 
uninformed  as  to  the  possibilities  of  our  forest  land  under  proper 
conditions. 


Any  Other  Business,  Forestry  Requires  Capital. 

This  is  partly  in  land  and  partly  in  the  growing  crops  of  wood. 
Capital  in  wood  may  often  exceed  that  in  land.  Income  from 
forests  comes  as  timber,  fuel,  bark,  and  in  items  of  smaller  impor- 
tance, such  as  grazing,  fruit,  medicinal  plants,  hunting,  etc. 

Forests  Should  be  so  Managed  as  to  yield  an  annual 
increase,  as  in  this  way  the  conditions  for  most  successful  market- 
ing are  best  met.  Under  such  conditions,  too,  a  certain  amount 
of  experienced  help  can  be  expected  to  become  located  conveni- 
ently near,  as  they  will  have  steady  work,  while  if  the  products 
are  harvested  at  irregular  intervals  new  help  must  be  engaged  at 
each  harvest,  which  is  extremely  undesirable. 

In  Considering  the  Returns  from  the  Forest  the  fol- 
lowing terms  should  be  clearly  understood:  (i)  Normal  grow- 
ing stock,  (2)  normal  income,  (3)  capital  stock,  and  (4)  actual 
income.  These  are  defined  in  the  following  paragraphs: 


NORMAL  GROWING  STOCK.  187 

Normal  Growing  Stock.  Since  the  annual  valuable 
increase  of  wood  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  leaf  surface 
on  trees  of  the  right  kind,  size  and  form,  it  follows  that  there 
must  always  be  a  certain  number  of  trees  of  a  certain  size  in 
order  to  obtain  normal  annual  growth.  This  material  represents 
invested  capital,  and  the  highest  annual  income  is  dependent 
upon  having  a  normal  growing  stock  upon  the  land.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  this  is  an  ideal  thing,  and  is  seldom,  if  ever,  exactly 
attained.  The  amount  of  normal  growing  stock  which  there  will 
be  upon  one  acre  will  depend  upon  the  species,  its  age  and  con- 
ditions, and  must  be  determined  in  the  working  plan  of  the 
forest  tract  after  a  careful  study  of  its  conditions. 

The  Normal  Income  is  the  crop  of  wood  that  a  given  tract 
of  forest  will  produce  per  year  under  normal  conditions.  This 
will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  species  and  conditions.  It  may  be 
harvested  by  selecting  only  the  large  trees  from  all  over  the  area, 
or  by  cutting  clean  over  a  certain  portion  of  it,  as  shown  in 
chapter  X.  It  is  very  plain  that,  if  the  increase  per  year  is  a 
given  amount,  it  may  be  harvested  by  either  method  without 
infringing  on  the  normal  growing  stock  of  the  whole  area.  For 
some  conditions  the  selection  method  is  preferred,  while  for  oth- 
ers, such  as  for  even  stands  of  Spruce,  which  are  liable  to  blow 
down  when  thinned,  it  might  be  better  to  cut  clean,  and  keep  the 
trees  in  even  age  groups.  In  this  latter  case  the  tract  should  be 
divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  years  in  the  rotation, 
and  the  timber  from  one  part  cut  each  year.  This  would  mean 
the  planting  or  seeding  of  a  like  amount  each  year. 

Capital  Growing  Stock.  This  represents  the  actual  amount 
of  trees  on  the  land  which  is  producing  wood  growth  of  value. 
The  nearer  this  approaches  to  the  normal  growing  stock  the  bet- 
ter the  condition  of  the  forest  and  the  larger  its  returns. 

Actual  Income  represents  the  annual  return  which  a  given 
forest  tract  is  producing. 

Increasing  Value  of  Forests.  In  countries  where  forestry 
has  reached  a  high  degree  of  development  a  piece  of  land  is 
regarded  as  being  in  forest  as  soon  as  it  is  stocked  with  trees, 
even  if  the  seedlings  are  not  yet  over  two  inches  high  and  are 
hardly  to  be  seen  at  a  short  distance.  Such  a  piece  of  land 
should  have  increased  value  and  should  be  regarded  as  earning 
a  rate  of  interest.  It  is  so  regarded  in  many  of  the  European 


188  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

states,  and  money  lenders  there  consider  this  matter  as  impor- 
tant when  placing  a  loan;  for  while  the  increase  on  such  land 
cannot  be  gathered  at  all  for  perhaps  sixteen  or  twenty  years, 
and  then  only  a  small  amount,  yet  a  certain  increase  in  woody 
tissue  is  being  stored  up  each  year  which  will  later  on  be  har- 
vested. It  should  be  regarded  as  being  worth  at  any  time  a  cer- 
tain proportion  of  its  total  value  at  maturity,  which  perhaps  will 
not  come  for  twenty  years,  but  if  a  forest  is  reasonably  protected 
from  fire,  it  is  almost  as  sure  to  earn  a  certain  increment  as  that 
the  conditions  on  the  earth  will  remain  as  they  are  for  eighty 
years.  And  if  a, forest  is  twenty  years  old,  it  may  be  in  such 
condition  that  it  would  be  wasteful  to  try  to  derive  any  income 
from  it  for  perhaps  twenty  years  more,  yet  it  is  worth  perhaps 
one-third  of  what  it  will  be  worth  twenty  years  hence.  Thus,  if 
at  forty  years  it  will  yield  ninety  cords  of  paper  pulp  per  acre, 
worth  five  dollars  per  cord,  it  should  at  twenty  years  be  worth 
about  $140,  after  allowing  for  compound  interest  at  six  per  cent. 
Unproductive  Forest  I/and.  In  almost  every  range  of  for- 
est there  will  be  some  land  that  is  quite  unproductive.  This  will 
generally  consist  of  ledgy  land,  or  that  which  is  elevated  above 
the  tree  line,  or  perhaps  may  consist  of  extended  swamps.  But 
on  this  account  it  should  not  be  thought  worthless,  but  should 
be  allowed  to  produce  what  growth  it  can,  especially  where  it  is 
valuable  in  protecting  the  sources  of  streams,  and  in  the  case 
of  elevated  mountain  sides  the  scrubby  growth  of  no  value  for 
timber  may  be  very  valuable  in  preventing  land  slips  or  snow 
slides.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  individuals  having  small  hold- 
ings such  considerations  do  not  apply,  but  they  are  important  and 
should  be  encouraged  in  any  comprehensive  forestry  scheme. 

European  Systems  'of  Forest  Management  have  been 
frequently  referred  to  as  being  applicable  to  our  conditions,  but, 
while  we  can  learn  much  of  value  from  the  history  and  practice 
of  European  forest  administration,  our  conditions  are  so  very 
different  from  those  existing  in  Europe  that  much  discretion 
must  be  exercised  in  adapting  their  methods  to  our  conditions. 
The  chief  difference  between  their  conditions  and  ours  is  in  the 
higher  price  of  their  timber  and  their  cheaper  hand  labor,  which 
makes  possible  very  different  methods  than  could  be  profitably 
used  here.  The  conditions  in  the  remote  parts  of  Russia  are 
much  more  like  those  in  this  country  than  are,  perhaps,  to  be 


TAXES  ON  FORESTS.  189 

found  elsewhere  in  Europe,  and  there  is  still  in  those  sections  a 
great  waste  of  forest  products,  and  large  losses  occur  there  annu- 
ally from  forest  fires.  But  in  the  most  accessible  parts  of  Rus- 
sia, and  in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  in  the  larger  portion  of  Ger- 
many and  France,  there  is  a  profitable  market  for  all  we  term 
waste  forest  products,  such  as  the  smaller  top  logs,  the  branches, 
twigs,  leaves,  stumps,  underbrush,  and  even  the  roots  of  trees. 
In  this  country  such  material  encumbers  the  ground,  and  greatly 
increases  the  danger  of  forest  fires,  which  is  by  far  the  greatest 
source  of  injury  to  growing  timber. 

Taxes  on  Timber  I/ands.  The  taxes  on  timber  lands  are 
generally  excessive  in  this  country,  and  entirely  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  the  land,  and  it  is  largely  on  this  account 
that  owners  of  timber  lands  do  not  care  to  hold  them.  This,  as 
a  matter  of  state  policy,  is  unwise,  for  the  reason  that  it  prevents 
the  development  of  economic  forestry.  In  most  European  coun- 
tries where  forestry  is  well  developed  it  is  customary  to  levy  a 
small  tax  on  the  land  and  to  tax  the  products  only  when  they  are 
harvested.  Such  a  tax  system  is  almost  unknown  in  this  coun- 
try, but  it  is  much  more  just  for  forest  property  than  our  ordi- 
nary taxing  methods.  It  would  seem  that  forest  property  ought 
to  be  regarded  in  a  special  class  for  the  purposes  of  taxation,  for 
the  reason  that  as  a  matter  of  state  policy  it  should  be  encour- 
aged, and  the  ordinary  methods  of  taxation  retard  its  BFst  de- 
velopment. 

Income  Game  Preserves.  Most  of  the  European  forests 
are  used  as  game  preserves,  as  well  as  for  forestry  purposes.  It 
is  well  known,  however,  that  the  presence  of  large  game  in  the 
forest  is  generally  a  great  disadvantage,  and  that  much  injury 
may  come  from  its  presence  there,  and  the  rental  of  about  twen- 
ty-five cents  per  acre,  which  is  the  price  generally  paid  for  the 
use  of  forest  preserves,  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  the  loss. 

The  German  forestry  service  generally  think  it  desirable  to 
have  game  in  the  forests  for  other  considerations  than  that  of  its 
rental  value,  and  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  it  adds  interest  to  the 
forest,  and  in  this  way  attracts  the  attention  of  parties  who  other- 
wise would  not  be  so  much  interested  in  it.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  sentiment  attached  to  the  presence ,  of  this  game  among 
the  foresters  themselves,  and  it  is  said  that  were  it  not  for  this 
sentiment  Germany  could  never  keep  as  fine  a  body  of  men  in 


190 


ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 


its  forestry  service  as  it  now  has.  In  the  renting  of  land  as  a  game 
preserve,  it  is  customary  to  limit  the  number  of  deer,  etc.,  that 
shall  be  killed  in  any  one  season.  It  is  customary  to  make  an 
estimate  of  the  game  of  the  forest  ranges  each  year.  In  the  case 
of  deer  this  is  done  by  feeding  them  in  paddocks  during  the  win- 
ter. 

Government  Supervision  of  Forests  in  Germany.    It  is 
the  policy  of  the  government  in  most  of  the  German  provinces 


Figure  . 


A  fine  young  growth  of  Norway  Spruce   (Picea  excelsa)   in 
n  of  the  "Giessen  Forestry  School"  in  Hessen,  Germany. 


the  forest  garden 


not  to  interfere  more  than  is  necessary  in  the  management  of 
private  woodlands,  although  the  custom  varies  in  the  different 
provinces.  On  this  account,  where  the  land  is  not  much  broken, 
there  are  few  requirements  in  regard  to  maintaining  forests;  but 
where  the  land  is  much  broken,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Bavarian 
Alps  and  the  Black  Forest,  it  is  sometimes  customary  to  require 
private  owners  to  deposit  the  cost  of  replanting  their  land 
when  they  cut  their  timber,  and  if  they  do  not  attend  to  the 


FOREST  RESERVATIONS.  191 

replanting  within  a  certain  period  it  is  done  by  the  government. 
It  is  the  very  general  settled  policy  of  the  provincial  governments 
to  keep  in  forest  about  the  same  area  that  is  now  devoted  to 
this  purpose,  and  since  the  water  powers  in  the  valleys  are 
dependent  for  the  regularity  of  their  supply  upon  the  forests  that 
are  upon  the  mountain  sides,  the  government  reasons  that  the 
exercise  of  some  supervision  in  this  matter  is  necessary  for  the 
well  being  of  all.  Where  forests  are  owned  by  municipalities, 
the  municipal  authorities  can  generally  hire  their  own  superin- 
tendent, but  in  some  provinces  the  government  generally  man- 
ages to  have  laws  passed  that  will  make  it  most  convenient  for 
municipalities  to  employ  the  government  superintendent.  In  the 
case  of  municipal  forests  the  governments  generally  allow  the 
cutting  of  only  the  increase  each  year.  If  this  matter  was  left 
entirely  to  the  will  of  the  people  they  would  frequently  sacrifice 
the  future  for  present  gains.  This  supervision  may  be  likened 
very  much  to  that  which  is  exercised  in  this  state  in  preventing 
cities  and  towns  from  acquiring  an  indebtedness  beyond  a  certain 
percentage  of  their  taxable  valuation.  However,  in  case  there  is 
a  pressing  need  for  some  public  improvement,  as  for  instance  a 
schoolhouse,  the  government  may  allow  extra  cuttings  for  this 
special  purpose,  but  in  after  years  the  annual  cuttings  must  be 
lessened  until  the  capital  growing  stock  of  wood  on  the  land  is 
made  good. 

Forest  Reservations  and  National  Parks.  Many  of  the 
forest  reservations  in  this  country  are  in  need  of  immediate 
attention.  Much  of  the  virgin  timber  on  them  has  passed  its 
prime  and  is  decaying,  and  the  constant  liability  to  forest  fires 
makes  the  young  growth  very  unsafe.  The  increased  demand  for 
timber  and  the  high  price  for  the  same  has  encouraged  lumber- 
men in  trying  to  have  the  timber  on  such  reservations  thrown 
onto  the  market.  When  cut  in  the  ordinary  manner  there  is 
practically  nothing  left,  and  the  end  of  the  tree  growth  is  reached. 
If  this  were  to  be  managed  in  a  proper  way  the  mature  trees 
would  be  cut  as  soon  as  there  was  a  demand  for  lumber,  and 
those  trees  should  be  left  which  are  still  growing  thriftily.  In 
some  cases  there  is  talk  of  utilizing  some  of  these  reservations  as 
national  parks,  and  in  America  too  often  the  park  idea  means 
simply  a  piece  of  land  from  which  nothing  is  removed.  The 
best  plan  for  managing  these  large  tracts  of  timber  would  proba- 


192  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

bly  be  to  use  them  as  examples  of  good  forestry,  as  well  as  for 
parks,  as  the  one  purpose  need  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  the 
other.  It  is  quite  customary  in  many  parts  of  Europe  to  have 
woodland  resorts  carried  on  in  this  way.  The  carrying  out  of 
such  a  plan  means  practically  the  establishment  of  a  business, 
which  at  the  outset  will  employ  a  large  number  of  men  in  har- 
vesting the  mature  trees,  which  will  generally  be  from  one-third 
to  one-half  of  that  which  is  standing.  This  business,  however, 
will  not  cease  to  be  productive  when  the  mature  trees  are  cut. 
but  will  go  on  indefinitely  producing  a  certain  amount  of  annual 
growth  which  can  be  harvested.  Putting  a  reservation  onto  this 
basis  would  have  the  effect  of  building  up  the  country  perma- 
nently, and  would  undoubtedly  lead  to  the  establishment  of  sum- 
mer resorts  in  the  most  favored  localities  in  them,  which  would 
also  add  to  their  prosperity.  The  government  can  well  afford 
to  do  this,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  perpetual  and  pays  no 
taxes,  while  perhaps  it  would  be  extremely  unwise  for  individuals 
to  engage  in  such  an  enterprise,  owing  to  the  fact  that  taxes  are 
too  high  and  the  profits  are  too  long  delayed.  On  many  of  the 
Indian  reservations  such  an  arrangement  as  this  would  result  in 
great  benefit  to  the  tribes  located  there,  for  it  would  assure  them 
in  the  continuance  of  their  reservations  as  homes,  and  at  the 
same  time  br^ng  them  in  close  contact  with  the  whites,  and  give 
them  regular  employment  and  regular  income.  Such  parks 
would  be  admirable  army  posts  for  cavalry,  which  could  be  used 
to  prevent  trespass. 

Minnesota  State  Forest  Reserves.  The  legislature  of 
Minnesota  passed  an  act  in  1899  which  created  the  "Minnesota 
State  Forestry  Board."  This  consists  of  nine  members,  two  of 
whom  are  members  ex-officio,  and  the  balance  are  appointed  by 
the  governor  when  recommended  to  him  by  the  regents  of  the 
university  and  by  'the  various  agricultural  and  kindred  societies 
of  the  state.  The  special  purpose  of  this  board  is  to  act  as  trus- 
tee for  the  state  in  the  management  of  any  lands  that  may  be 
donated  to  it  for  forestry  purposes.  It  has  also  power  to  publish 
in  a  popular  manner  bulletins  from  time  to  time.  Any  person  or 
corporation  may  donate  to  the  state  through  this  board  any 
waste  land  it  may  have.  The  land  is  to  be  managed  on  forestry 
principles.  At  least  once  in  five  years  the  accumulated  income 


FOREST  FIRE  LAW.  193 

from  each  tract  that  has  been  deeded  is  to  be  divided  by  the  State 
Forestry  Board  as  follows:  One-third  shall  be  divided  between 
the  state,  county  and  town  where  the  land  is  situated  (one-half 
of  said  one-third  going  to  the  state,  one-fourth  to  the  county 
and  one-fourth  to  the  town)  and  two-thirds  of  the  income  shall 
be  paid  to  such  public  educational  institution  in  the  state  as  may 
be  designated  in  the  deed  of  conveyance.  Provision  is  made 
that,  where  the  growth  of  towns,  the  building  of  railroads,  the 
development  of  water  powers,  or  other  improvements  may 
demand  the  alienation  of  the  land  by  the  state,  the  forestry  board 
may  sell  the  same  and  divide  the  proceeds  as  directed  for  the 
income.  Otherwise  the  land  is  to  be  held  in  perpetuity  for  for- 
estry purposes. 

It  was  thought  that  under  the  terms  of  this  act  a  large  amount 
of  waste  land  would  be  donated,  but  the  unprecedented  land 
boom  of  the  last  two  years  has  led  to  some  disappointment  in  this 
regard. 

An  Act  for  the  Prevention  and  Suppression  of  Forest 
Fires  in  Minnesota.  This  act,  which  was  passed  by  the 
legislature  of  Minnesota  in  1895,  makes  a  systematic  division  of 
the  state  in  such  a  way  that  every  section  of  it  is  in  charge  of  a 
forest  fire  warden.  It  provides  for  the  appointment  of  a  chief 
fire  warden,  who  shall  have  supervision  of  all  fire  wardens. 
Supervisors  of  towns,  mayors  of  cities  and  presidents  of  village 
councils  are  constituted  fire  wardens  in  their  respective  towns, 
cities  and  villages.  The  chief  fire  warden  has  power  to  appoint 
as  fire  wardens  other  persons,  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  to  pro- 
tect unorganized  territory.  One-third  of  the  expense  is  borne  by 
the  state  and  two-thirds  by  the  counties.  Under  this  act  penal- 
ties are  prescribed  as  follows: 

The  following  are  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  $100,  or 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  three  years: 

Any  person  refusing,  without  sufficient  cause,  to  assist  fire 
wardens  in  extinguishing  forest  or  prairie  fires. 

Any  fire  warden  who  neglects  to  perform  his  duties. 

Any  person  who  willfully,  negligently  or  carelessly  sets  on 
fire,  or  causes  to  be  set  on  fire,  any  woods,  prairies  or  other 
combustible  material,  thereby  causing  injury  to  another, 
13 


194  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY. 

Any  person  who  shall  kindle  a  fire  on  or  dangerously  near  to 
forest  or  prairie  land,  and  leave  it  unquenched,  or  who  shall  be  a 
party  thereto. 

Any  person  who  shall  use  other  than  incombustible  fire  wads 
for  firearms,  or  carry  a  naked  torch,  firebrand,  or  other  exposed 
light,  in  or  dangerously  near  to  forest  land. 

Any  person  who  shall  willfully  or  heedlessly  deface,  destroy 
or  remove  any  warning  placard  posted  under  the  requirements  of 
this  act. 

Any  railroad  company  willfully  neglecting  to  provide  effi- 
cient spark  arresters  on  its  engines,  or  to  keep  its  right  of  way 
to  the  width  of  100  feet  cleared  of  combustible  material,  or  which 
shall  fail  to  comply  with  other  provisions  of  section  12  of  the 
above  mentioned  act. 

The  following  are  liable  to  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  $5.00 
nor  mor£  than  $50.00 : 

Any  railroad  employe  who  willfully  violates  the  provisions 
of  section  12  of  this  act,  in  regard  to  depositing  live  coals  or  hot 
ashes  near  woodland,  and  to  reporting  fires. 

Any  owner  of  threshing  or  other  portable  steam  engine  who 
neglects  to  have  efficient  spark  arresters,  or  who  shall  deposit 
lire  coals  or  hot  ashes  without  extinguishing  the  same. 

The  following  are  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  $500,  or 
imprisonment  in  the  state  prison  not  over  ten  years,  or  both: 

Any  person  who  maliciously  sets  or  causes  to  be  set  on  fire 
any  woods,  prairie  or  other  combustible  material  whereby  the 
property  of  another  is  destroyed  and  life  sacrificed. 

The  effect  of  this  law  has  been  very  beneficial,  and  has  pre- 
vented much  loss  of  property  by  fire;  but  the  area  to  be  covered 
is  very  large,  much  of  it  is  very  sparsely  populated,  and  the  funds 
available  are  very  meager  for  best  results,  so  that,  although  it 
has  been  very  ably  enforced,  and  some  convictions  made  under 
it,  yet  it  should  be  amended  in  several  respects  to  make  it  effec- 
tive. 

State  Bounty  for  Tree  Planting.  It  is  provided  by  the 
laws  of  the  State  of  Minnesota  that  any  person  who  shall  plant, 
cultivate  and  keep  in  a  growing,  thrifty  condition  one  acre  and 


FOREST  FIRE  LAW.   •  195 

not  more  than  ten  acres  of  prairie  land  with  any  kind  of  forest 
trees  except  Black  Locust,  to  be  planted  not  more  than  eight 
feet  apart  each  way,  and  maintained  at  that  distance  by  replant- 
ing each  year  such  as  may  have  died  out,  shall  be  entitled  to  $2.50 
per  acre  for  a  period  of  six  years.  Provided  that  not  more  than 
$20,000  shall  be  expended  in  any  one  year  for  this  purpose. 

This  law  has  no   doubt  been   productive   of   much   good  in 
encouraging  the  planting  of  forest  trees  on  the  prairies. 


PART  II. 

TREES  OF  MINNESOTA 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


PINACEAE.    PINE  FAMILY, 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  resinous  juice.  Leaves  commonly 
needle-shaped  or  awl-shaped,  and  mostly  evergreen.  Flowers 
monoecious  or  sometimes  dioecious,  in  catkins  or  cones,  destitute 
of  calyx  and  corolla.  The  pollen  grains  have  lateral  air  sacs 
which  buoy  them  up  in  the  air,  and  they  are  occasionally  carried 
hundreds  of  miles  by  the  wind.  Fruit  either  a  woody  cone  with 
distinct  scales,  as  in  the  pines,  spruces,  Arborvitae  and  Larch,  or 
a  somewhat  berry-like  cone  with  fleshy  coherent  scales,  as  in  the 
Red  Cedar. 

Genus  PINUS. 

Leaves  of  two  kinds;  the  primary  ones,  linear  or  scale  like, 
deciduous;  the  secondary  forming  the  ordinary  foliage  ever- 
green, from  slender  buds,  in  clusters  of  two,  three  or  five 
together,  each  cluster  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of  thin  mem- 
branous scales.  Flowers  appear  in  the  spring,  monoecious;  the 
staminate  in  scaly  catkins  clustered  at  the  base  of  the  new 
growth;  the  pistillate  in  scaly  catkins  borne  on  the  twigs  of  the 
preceding  season,  becoming  scaly  cones  at  maturity.  Each  scale 
is  in  the  axil  of  a  bract,  and  bears  a  pair  of  ovules  adhering  to 
its  inner  face,  which  peel  off  as  the  scale  expands  at  matur- 
ity. Fruit  a  woody  cone,  maturing  in  the  autumn  of  the  second 
year.  Cotyledons  three  to  twelve,  linear.  We  have  only  three 
native  species  in  this  state. 

Pinus  Strobus.     White  Pine.     Weymouth  Pine. 

Leaves  soft,  in  clusters  of  five,  about  three  to  four  inches  long, 
falling  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  during  the  third  season;  sheath 


200 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  i.    Pinus  strobus.    White  Pine. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers  and  young  cones,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  An- 
ther, side  view,  enlarged.  4  and  5.  Scales  of  pistillate  flower,  side  and  top 
views,  enlarged.  6.  Autumn  branch  bearing  young  cones,  one-half  natural 
size.  7.  Fruiting  branch  bearing  open  cone,  one-half  natural  size.  8. 
Scale  of  cone  with  seeds  attached,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  Seeds  with 
wings  attached,  one-half  natural  size.  ic.  Seeds,  enlarged.  IT.  Seedling 
plant. 


PINE.  201 

early  deciduous.  Sterile  catkins  five  or  six  together.  Cones  soli- 
tary, four  to  six  inches  long,  slender,  cylindrical,  terminal,  pendu- 
lous, falling  after  shedding  their  seeds;  scales  thin  and  pointless, 
seeds  nearly  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long  with  eight  to  ten  coty- 
ledons. A  magnificent  tree,  and  the  tallest  one  of  the  Eastern 
States.  In  good  locations  in  this  state  it  sometimes  attains  a 
height  of  over  160  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four  feet.  One  acre 
was  scaled  near  Carlton,  Minn.,  which  yielded  over  94,000  feet 
board  measure  of  sound  timber.  The  White  Pine  is  generally 
found  in  this  section  on  rather  clayey  land.  On  poor  land  the 
Norway  and  Jack  Pine  generally  crowd  it  out. 

Distribution. — Canada  and  the  Northeastern  States  and  south- 
ward along  the  Alleghanies  to  Georgia,  the  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  around  the  Great  Lakes.  In  Minnesota  it  is  common 
through  the  northern  half  of  the  state,  excepting  west  of  Red 
Lake,  and  south  to  the  northern  edge  of  Chisago  county.  It  is 
found  occasionally  south  of  this  limit,  as  at  St.  Cloud,  Taylors 
Falls,  Cannon  River,  Mantorville,  Rochester,  St.  Charles,  and  at 
various  points  in  Houston  and  Fillmore  counties.  In  the  western 
and  southwestern  portions  of  the  state  it  is  not  found. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  as  recommended  for  evergreens.  The 
young  seedlings  will  not  bear  as  much  sunlight  as  the  Norway, 
Jack  or  the  Bull  Pine,  and  will  bear  considerable  shade. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Very  soft,  light,  weak,  compact,  straight 
grained,  very  resinous,  easily  worked,  of  a  delicate  pinkish  brown 
color,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood.  One  of  its  points  of  con- 
siderable value  is  the  small  degree  to  which  it  shrinks  and  swells 
owing  to  change  in  the  atmosphere.  Not  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil,  although  the  heartwood  stands  fairly  well.  Specific 
gravity,  0.3854;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  24.02  pounds. 

Uses. — The  White  Pine  is  one  of  the  fastest  growing  and  per- 
haps the  most  graceful  of  evergreens  for  ornamental  planting. 
It  grows  rapidly  when  in  retentive  soil  of  a  loose  open  texture, 
but  is  liable  to  kill  out  in  wet,  compact  or  very  sandy  soils.  It 
should  not  be  planted  in  very  exposed  situations,  but  should  fol- 
low the  planting  of  the  more  hardy  deciduous  trees  in  such 
places;  it  is  liable  to  be  killed  by  drying  winds  in  the  early  spring 
on  our  Western  prairies.  It  is  not  as  hardy  as  the  Scotch  Pine, 
nor  will  it  make  as  fast  a  growth  when  young,  but  is  longer  lived 


202  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

than  the  Scotch  Pine,  and  in  fifteen  years  will  make  a  much 
larger  and  more  ornamental  tree.  Within  and  near  its  range  it 
is  very  valuable  for  ornamental  purposes. 

The  White  Pine  yields  the  most  useful  timber  of  the  American 
forests,  it  being  especially  valuable  for  sash,  doors,  blinds,  shin- 
gles, etc.,  and  for  a  general-purpose  timber  in  buildingxand  wood- 
working. It  is  largely  used  in  cooperage,  railroad  ties,  pulp, 
matches  and  excelsior  making.  From  the  bark  is  obtained  the 
compound  syrup  of  White  Pine  now  largely  used  in  the  United 
States  as  an  expectorant. 

Pinus  flexilis.    I/imber  Pine.     Western  White  Pine 

Leaves  five  in  a  sheath,  somewhat  rigid,  sharp  pointed  and 
densely  crowded  on  the  branchlets,  falling  during  fifth  and  sixth 
years.  Cones  cylindrical,  tapering,  three  to  five  inches  long, 
light  brown;  scales  thick,  one  and  one-quarter  inches  broad; 
seeds  one-third  to  one-half  inch  long,  with  six  to  nine  cotyledons. 
A  handsome  tree,  about  fifty  feet  high,  resembling  the  common 
White  Pine,  but  of  closer,  stiffer  habit  and  darker  foliage. 

Distribution. — Mountain  ranges  from  Alberta  to  Western 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  California. 

Propagation. — By  seeds. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  close  grained,  compact;  color, 
light  clear  yellow,  turning  red  on  exposure;  sapwood  nearly 
white.  Specific  gravity,  0.4358;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  27.16 
pounds. 

Uses. — The  Western  White  Pine  is  a  handsome  tree  that  is  lit- 
tle known  in  cultivation,  but  promises  to  be  of  some  value  for 
ornamental  planting,  and  is  doing  very  well  at  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station,  where  it  has  been  growing  nine  years. 

Pinus  resinosa.    Red  Pine.    Norway  Pine. 

Leaves  five  to  six  inches  long,  nearly  cylindrical;  in  pairs  from 
long  close  sheaths,  falling  during  fourth  and  fifth  seasons.  Cone 
ovoid  conical,  with  rounded  base,  about  two  inches  long,  falling 
after  shedding  the  seeds;  scales  of  cone  slightly  thickened  at  the 
end  without  any  prickly  points;  seeds  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
with  from  six  to  eight  cotyledons.  A  very  handsome,  rapid- 
growing,  robust  tree,  with  a  straight,  uniform  trunk  covered  with 


PINE. 


203 


Plate  2.    Pinus  resinosa.     Red  Pine. 

i.  Branch  bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate 
flower,  natural  size.  3.  Pistillate  flower,  natural  size.  4.  Anther,  open,  en- 
larged. 5.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  6.  Branch  bearing  ripened 
cones  and  young  cones.  7.  Scale  of  cone  with  seeds  attached,  one-half 
natural  size.  8.  Cross  section  of  needle.  9.  Seedling  plant,  one-half  nat- 
ural size. 


204  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

a  pretty  reddish  gray,  soft,  flaky  bark;  commonly  grows  about 
eighty  feet  in,  height  and  two  feet  in  diameter,  but  occasionally 
reaches  a  height  of  150  feet.  Wrongly  called  Norway  Pine,  for 
this  species  is  not  found  in  Norway  or  any  other  part  of  Europe. 

Distribution.— Found  in  northern  United  States  and  Canada, 
southward  as  far  as  Pennsylvania,  but  reaches  its  greatest  develop- 
ment in  the  northern  part  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minne- 
sota, where  it  forms  large  forests  even  on  sandy  or  dry  soil,  often 
interspersed  with  Jack  Pine  when  young.  In  Minnesota  its 
range  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  White  Pine,  but  does  not 
extend  as  far  south. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  as  recommended  for  evergreens.  The 
seeds  of  this  pine  are  very  scarce,  and  difficult  to  obtain  on 
account  of  the  few  produced  in  the  cones  and  the  ravages  of  the 
squirrels.  These  animals  are  so  fond  of  the  seeds  that  they  often 
cut  into  the  cones  before  the  seeds  are  mature  and  take  the  larger 
part. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  as  recommended  for  evergreens.  The 
seeds  of  this  pine  are  very  scarce,  and  difficult  to  obtain  on 
crack  in  drying;  yellowish  white  sapwood  and  reddish  heart- 
wood,  conspicuously  grained;  not  durable  in  contact  with  the 
ground.  Specific  gravity,  0.4854;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  30.25 
pounds. 

Uses. — As  an  ornamental  tree  and  for  windbreaks  the  Red 
Pine  will  stand  much  more  hard  usage  than  the  White  Pine, 
especially  on  light  soil.  It  has  a  robust,  vigorous  appearance, 
and  would  undoubtedly  be  more  commonly  planted  if  young 
plants  of  it  could  be  more  cheaply  obtained.  Within  and  near  its 
range  it  makes  a  very  fine  ornamental  tree,  and  is  very  valuable 
for  windbreaks.  The  principal  value  of  this  timber  is  for  fram- 
ing, flooring,  wainscoting,  car  sills  and  ship  building.  In  many 
ways  it  is  used  to  take  the  place  of  White  Pine.  In  fact,  Red 
Pine,  while  inferior  for  general  use,  is  frequently  mixed  with 
White  Pine  in  lumber  yards.  While  its  specific  name,  resinosa, 
would  seem  to  infer  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  resin  in 
this  tree,  it  in  fact  contains  comparatively  little,  and  is  seldom 
used  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  resin. 


PINE.  205 

PittUS    divaricata.      (P.  bankszana.}     Jack    Pine.       Nor- 
thern Scrub  Pine.     Gray  Pine. 

Leaves  in  twos,  short,  from  three-quarters  to  one  and  one- 
half  inches  long,  acute,  rigid,  thick,  more  or  less  curved  and 
twisted,  falling  the  second  or  third  season;  inner  side  channeled; 
margins  very  minutely  serrate,  sheaths  short;  buds  very  resinous. 
Cones  ovoid  acuminate,  about  two  inches  long,  often  curved, 
laterally  located  on  branchlets,  often  in  pairs.  They  are  gen- 
erally opened  by  the  sun,  but  where  they  are  in  the  shade  they 
will  remain  on  the  trees  unopened  for  several  years  until  they 
become  deeply  covered  with  moss  and  sometimes  until  over- 
grown and  imbedded  in  the  wood  and  bark.  The  seeds  are 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  with  four  to  five  cotyledons. 
Those  from  the  old  cones  seem  to  grow  as  readily  as  fresh  seeds 
when  sown.  A  very  pronounced  peculiarity  of  this  tree  is  its 
habit  of  forming  several*  whorls  of  branches  on  the  new  growth. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  when  the  trees  are  young  and  grow- 
ing rapidly,  when  as  many  as  six  whorls  of  branches  may  be  seen 
on  a  year's  growth.  This  tree,  under  favorable  conditions,  will 
occasionally  attain  a  height  of  125  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two 
feet.  However  it  is  seldom  over  seventy  feet  high  and  eight  to 
twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  generally  where  it  occurs  in  pine 
forests  it  is  only  forty  or  fifty  feet  high. 

Distribution. — It  is  distributed  from  northern  New  England 
and  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  westward  along  our  northern 
frontier  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  north  to  the  Arctic  circle; 
found  growing  in  sandy  land  and  land  that  has  been  recently 
severely  burned.  It  covers  large  areas  of  poor,  sandy  lands  in 
Minnesota.  In  this  state  it  probably  has  about  the  same  range 
as  Norway  Pine. 

Propagation. — By  seeds.  The  cones  may  be  obtained  at  any 
season  of  the  year  and  kept  out  of  doors  until  spring,  when  they 
can  be  opened  by  the  application  of  a  little  heat.  The  seeds  from 
the  old  cones  seem  to  have  as  much  vitality  as  those  from  young 
cones.  In  the  woods  the  cones  of  Jack  Pine  often  remain  closed 
until  a  fire  sweeping  over  the  land  causes  them  to  open,  and 
allows  the  seeds  to  fall  in  the  loose  ashes,  where  they  soon  start 
into  growth.  On  account  of  this  peculiarity  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  Fire  Pine.  The  seedlings  are  very  hardy,  and  grow 


206 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate   3.    Pinus   divaricata.    Jack   Pine. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Staminate  flower,  nat- 
ural size.  4.  Anther,  open,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  en- 
larged. 6.  Branch  bearing  ripened  cones  and  young  cones,  one-half  nat- 
ural size.  7.  Scale  of  cone  with  seeds  attached,  one-half  natural  size. 
8.  Fascicle  of  needles,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  Cross  section  of  needle. 

10.  New  growth  showing  several  whorls  of  branches,  one-half  natural  size. 

11.  Seedling,  one-half  natural  size. 


PINE.  207 

without  shade.  It  is  one  of  the  first  evergreens  to  start  on  the 
abandoned  dry  pine  land  in  some  sections  of  this  state.  • 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  resinous;  light 
yellowish  brown  in  color  with  thick  whitish  sapwood.  Specific 
gravity,  0.4761 ;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  29.67  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Jack  Pine  is  not  a  pretty  tree,  and  is  seldom  used 
in  ornamental  planting.  It  is,  however,  the  hardiest  native  ever- 
green tree  we  have  and  is  especially  adapted  to  dry,  loose  soil, 
where  it  has  a  wondrous  power  of  withstanding  drouth.  It  is  of 
rapid  growth  when  young,  which,  together  with  its  great  hardi- 
ness, has  led  to  its  being  planted  on  some  of  the  sandiest  dry 
lands  of  the  West.  In  the  timbered  portion  of  Minnesota  it  often 
acts  as  a  nurse  tree  for  the  Red  Pine,  but  too  often  is  liable  to 
crowd  it  out.  The  larger  trees  are  generally  sawed  into  lumber 
and  pass  as  Red  Pine,  but  they  seldom  attain  a  size  large  enough 
to  be  profitably  used  for  this  purpose,  but  much  of  it  is  used  for 
fencing,  farm  buildings,  railroad  ties  and  as  fuel. 

Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum.    Rock  Pine.    Bull  Pine. 
Heavy-wooded  Pine.     Western  Yellow  Pine. 

Leaves  three  to  six  inches  long,  rigid,  generally  in  threes, 
but  occasionally  in  twos,  falling  during  third  and  fourth  seasons. 
Cones  two  to  three  inches  long,  grayish,  with  stout  prickles. 
Tree  80  to  100  feet  high.  The  species,  Pinus  ponderosa,  of  which 
this  is  an  important  variety,  is  the  most  magnificent  and  widely 
spread  of  Western  Pines,  attaining  a  height  of  200  to  300  feet 
and  a  thickness  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  and  having  much  larger 
cones  and  longer  needles  than  this  variety. 

Distribution. — The  Rock  Pine  is  found  throughout  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  It  inhabits  even  the  dry  sand  hills  of  West- 
ern Nebraska  and  Montana,  and  is  perhaps  the  hardiest  Western 
Pine. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  are  large,  easily  obtained,  and 
grow  with  the  greatest  certainty  if  given  ordinary  treatment. 

Properties  of  Wood. — The  wood  varies  greatly  in  quality  and 
value.  It  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  brittle  and  compact,  neither 
coarse  grained  nor  durable;  color,  light  red,  with  very  thick 
light  colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity,  0.4619;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  28.78  pounds. 


208 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  4.    Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum.     Rock  Pine. 

i.  End  of  branch  bearing  staminate  flower,  enlarged.  2.  End  of  branch 
bearing  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  3.  Anther,  open.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate 
flower  attached  to  bract,  front  view,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower 
attached  to  bract,  rear  view,  enlarged.  6.  Cone,  one-half  natural  size. 
7.  Scale  of  cone,  rear  view,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Seed  attached  to  wing. 
9.  Branch  showing  young  growth,  one-half  natural  size.  10.  Fascicle  of 
three  needles,  one-half  natural  size.  n.  Fascicle  of  two  needles,  one-half 
natural  size.  12.  Cross  section  of  needle  from  three-leaf  fascicle.  13.  Seed- 
ling, one-half  natural  size. 


PINE.  209 

Uses. — The  Rock  Pine  has  the  power  of  withstanding  great 
extremes  of  drouth  and  temperature,  and  promises  to  be  of  great 
value  for  planting  on  our  Western  plains.  It  is  of  rapid  growth, 
and  while  it  has  a  somewhat  coarse  appearance  its  sturdy  form  is 
far  from  being  unsightly.  It  is  perhaps  rather  more  difficult  to 
transplant  than  the  Scotch  Pine,  probably  on  account  of  its  deep 
tap  root  when  young.  The  wood  is  largely  manufactured  into 
lumber,  and  used  for  railway  ties,  fuel,  etc. 

Pinus  sylvestris.    Scotch  Pine.    Scotch  Fir.     Deal  Wood. 

Leaves  two  in  a  sheath,  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  long, 
and  of  a  glaucous  hue,  falling  during  third  season;  sheaths  small, 
persistent,  nearly  black.  Cones  about  two  inches  long,  tapering 
towards  the  apex,  solitary  or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three;  scales 
of  cones  tipped  with  a  deciduous  point.  Trees  rather  inclined 
to«grow  crooked,  and  to  not  keep  a  straight  shaft  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Norway  and  Austrian  Pines.  In  this  region  where  it  is 
cultivated  it  seldom  grows  over  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  forms 
round  topped  trees  spreading  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet.  There 
are  several  cultivated  varieties,  the  most  of  which  are  of  little 
value. 

Distribution. — It  is  the  common  timber  pine  of  northern 
Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation. — Easily  grown  from  seeds  if  properly  managed, 
but  requires  shade  when  very  small.  Most  of  the  seeds  of  this 
pine  that  are  commonly  sold  are  gathered  in  Europe  from  a 
dwarf  scrubby  form  that  is  found  on  dry  poor  land.  There  are 
probably  very  few  seeds  sold  from  the  large  timber  trees,  as  they 
are  most  cheaply  gathered  from  the  dwarf  form.  This  may  be  a 
reason  why  the  tree  is  generally  so  dwarf  with  us,  although  it 
varies  much  in  size  when  grown  in  different  soils. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Yellowish  white,  soft,  light,  close  grained 
and  easily  worked.  Specific  gravity,  air  dried,  0.52. 

Uses. — The  Scotch  Pine  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  evergreens, 
of  very  rapid  close  growth  when  young,  but  often  rather  open  in 
habit  when  old.  It  generally  reaches  its  maturity  when  about 
twenty  years  old,  and  seldom  lasts  much  longer  when  on  dry 
soil.  It  has  been  planted  more  largely  than  any  other  evergreen 
on  our  prairies,  and  perhaps  is  as  good  as  any  for  pioneer  plant- 
ings. 
14 


210 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  5.    Pinits  sylvestris.     Scotch   Pine. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers  and  young  cones,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers  after  pollination,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Un- 
opened pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  rear  view, 
enlarged.  6.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  front  view,  enlarged.  7.  Anther,  en- 
larged. 8.  Branch  bearing  ripe  cone  and  young  cone,  one-half  natural  size. 
9.  An  open  cone,  one-half  natural  size.  10.  Scale  of  cone,  one-half  natural 
sire.  it.  Seeds  with  wings  attached.  12,  Seed,  natural  size.  13.  Seedling, 
one-half  natural  size, 


PINE.  211 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  valuable  for  interior  finishing,  and  is 
largely  used  in  Europe,  where  it  is  the  common  timber  pine. 
The  celebrated  pine  of  Norway  and  the  Baltic  countries  is  of  th;s 
species.  What  has  been  termed  the  best  form  of  this,  and  known 
as  Riga  Pine,  has  been  partially  tried  in  this  country,  but  thus  far 
its  superiority  has  not  been  demonstrated. 

"This  pine  yields  a  considerable  portion  of  the  common 
European  turpentine.  In  Germany  a  fibrous  substance  is  pre- 
pared from  the  leaves  of  this  and  other  species  of  Pinus  and 
Abies,  called  fir-wool,  and  a  volatile  oil  is  distilled  from  them 
called  fir-wool  oil,  which  is  considerably  used  as  a  remedy  for 
rheumatism,  chronic  catarrh,  chronic  skin  diseases,  etc.;  in  fact, 
generally  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  oil  of  turpentine.  The 
leaves  are  made  into  wadding  and  clothing  (designated  as  fir- 
wool  from  their  origin),  which  are  supposed  to  have  some  merit 
in  the  treatment  of  rheumatic  affections." 

Pinus   laricio   austriaca.     Austrian  Pine.     Black  Pine. 

Leaves  two  in  a  sheath,  dark  green,  slender  but  rigid,  four  to 
six  inches  long,  falling  during  fourth  and  fifth  seasons.  Cones 
two  and  one-half  to  three  inches  long,  conical,  not  beaked.  Tree 
much  more  regular  in  outline  than  the  Scotch  Pine,  the  branches 
coming  out  in  a  very  regular,  candelabra-like  fashion.  There 
are  a  few  cultivated  varieties. 

Distribution. — Native  of  southern  and  central  Europe. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  seedlings  require  shading  when 
young. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  durable,  very  rich  in  turpen- 
tine. Specific  gravity,  air  dried,  0.57. 

Uses. — The  Austrian  Pine  is  very  desirable  for  planting  in 
this  section,  rather  longer  lived  and  perhaps  hardier  than  the 
Scotch  Pine,  and  of  a  much  darker  color,  resembling  most 
closely  the  Norway  Pine. 

Pinus   montana  pumila.     (P.  mughus.}     Dwarf  Pine. 
Dwarf  Mountain  Pine. 

Leaves  dark  green,  crowded,  stiff,  twisted,  about  two  inches 
long,  falling  during  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  years.  Cones  usually 
in  pairs,  nearly  two  inches  long,  tapering,  with  slight  points  to 


212 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  6.    Finns  laricio  austriaca.    Austrian  Pine. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  BYanch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers  and  young  cones,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  End 
of  branch  bearing  bud  and  young  cone,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Pistillate 
flower,  natural  size.  5.  Anther,  enlarged.  6  and  7.  Scales  of  pistillate 
flower,  front  and  rear  views,  enlarged.  8.  Open  cone,  one-half  natural 
size.  9.  Scale  of  cone,  one-half  natural  size.  10.  Seeds  with  wings  at- 
tached, one-half  natural  size.  n.  Seed,  natural  size.  12.  Seedling,  one- 
half  natural  size.  13.  Cross  section  of  needle. 


PINE.  213 

the  scales.  A  densely  branched  shrub,  or  possibly  a  small  tree, 
two  to  ten  feet  high. 

Distribution. — Mountains  of  central  Europe. 

Propagation. — Easily  grown  from  seeds. 

Uses. — The  Dwarf  Pine  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  Pines.  It  is 
of  pretty,  close  shrubby  form  and  takes  kindly  to  pruning,  which 
often  greatly  improves  it.  The  plants  from  seed  vary  quite  a 
little  in  habit,  some  being  dwarf  and  spreading  while  others  are 


Figure  48.      Pinus  montana  pumila.     Dwarf   Pine. 

quite  erect  and  tree-like.  It  is  valuable  for  single  specimens 
in  lawn  planting,  for  the  edges  of  evergreen  groups  and  for  low 
hedges. 

Genus  I^ARIX. 

A  genus  of  large,  deciduous,  cone-bearing  trees.  Leaves 
needle-shaped,  soft,  deciduous,  clustered,  except  on  young  shoots, 
where  they  are  spirally  arranged;  leaf  clusters  developed  in  early 
spring  from  lateral,  scaly,  globular  buds,  which  are  scattered 
along  the  shoots  of  the  season. 

Propagation. — The  seeds  germinate  readily  in  moist  sandy  soil, 
and  the  seedlings  are  easily  raised  in  the  manner  described  for 
evergreens.  They  should  be  transplanted  very  early  in  the 
spring,  and  if  this  is  done  at  the  right  time  the  seedlings  will 
start  readily,  but  if  moved  after  the  plants  have  started  they  are 
very  likely  to  fail. 


214  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

I/arix    laricina.     (L.  americana.}     Tamarack.      American 
Larch.     Hackmatack. 

Leaves  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  slender 
and  thread-like,  light  bluish  green,  deciduous.  Cones  one-half 
to  one  inch  long,  ovoid.  A  slender,  graceful  tree,  thirty  to  one 
hundred  feet  high,  with  close  or  at  length  sightly  scaly  bark. 

Distribution. — Northeastern  United  States,  north  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, nearly  or  quite  to  the  Arctic  regions  and  west  nearly  to 
Central  Minnesota;  rare  farther  south  than  Ramsey  and  Henne- 
pin  counties  in  Minnesota.  It  covers  vast  areas  of  swamp  land 
in  the  northern  part  of  this  state  with  a  short  stunted  growth. 
It  fails  to  reach  large  size  in  very  wet  land,  while  on  land  that 
is  not  excessively  wet  it  grows  100  feet  high  and  sixteen  inches 
through  at  the  stump.  In  one  instance  a  stunted  Tamarack, 
growing  on  excessively  wet  land,  had  been  forty-eight  years  in 
attaining  a  diameter  of  one  and  one-tenth  inches,  while  on  land 
well  adapted  to  it  a  tree  had  grown  to  the  height  of  forty-four 
and  one-quarter  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  eleven  inches  in  thirty- 
eight  years. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather  coarse 
grained,  compact,  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil;  color  light 
brown;  sapwood  nearly  white.  Specific  gravity,  0.6236;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  38.86  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Tamarack  may  occasionally  be  used  for  variety  in 
lawn  planting  on  moist  soil,  and  is  well  adapted  to  planting  along 
lake  shores  and  around  sloughs;  but  on  dry  soil  it  is  of  little 
value,  and  we  have  many  far  more  valuable  trees  for  moist  soils. 
The  lumber  is  largely  used  in  ship  building,  canoe  making,  for 
fence  posts,  telegraph  poles,  railway  ties,  etc.  The  inner  bark 
of  European  Larch  is  used  in  medicine,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  bark  of  our  American  species  has  similar  medicinal  proper- 
ties. Two  varieties  varying  in  color  of  heartwood,  the  red  and 
the  white  Tamarack,  are  commonly  distinguished.  The  differ- 
ence is  probably  one  of  age  only.  The  red  hearted  trees,  having 
the  more  heartwood,  make  the  more  durable  lumber.  This  tree 
grows  fast,  and  readily  renews  itself  from  seed.  For  these  rea- 
sons, good  Tamarack  swamps,  properly  managed,  should  prove 
profitable  investments. 


LARCH. 


215 


Plate  7.    Larix  europea.    European  Larch. 

i.  Branch-bearing  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  and  a  mature  cone, 
one-half  natural  size.  2.  Anther,  enlarged.  3.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower, 
enlarged.  4.  Seeds  with  wings  attached,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Seed, 
natural  size.  6.  Scale  of  cone,  one-half  ratural  size.  7.  Branches  showing 
arrangement  of  leaves  on  new  and  old  growth.  8.  Branch  showing  tip  of 
new  growth  in  spring.  9.  A  leaf  from  fascicle  on  old  growth.  10.  A  leaf 
from  new  growth,  n.  Winter  branch  showing  persistent  cone.  12.  Seed- 
ling. 


216  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

I/arix  europea.     European  Larch. 

Leaves  longer  than  those  of  the  Tamarack,  and  of  a  brighter 
green  color.  Cones  longer  than  those  of  the  Tamarack.  A 
large  and  important  timber  tree. 

Distribution. — Native  of  northern  and  central  Europe,  on  moist 
mountain  sides. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Hard,  strong,  tough,  very  durable  in 
contact  with  the  soil.  Specific  gravity,  0.62. 

Uses. — The  European  Larch  has  been  largely  planted  in  the 
Eastern  States  in  small  timber  plantations,  for  windbreaks  and 
ornament.  It  is  superior  to  our  native  Larch  for  these  purposes, 
but  has  not  succeeded  well  on  our  Western  prairies,  probably  on 
account  of  the  dry  climate.  On  moist  soil  in  somewhat  sheltered 
locations  it  often  does  well,  and  becomes  a  graceful,  pretty  tree. 
Very  large  and  successful  plantations  of  this  tree  have  been 
made  in  Scotland  and  other  European  countries,  but  in  some 
parts  of  Germany  the  Japanese  Larch  is  preferred,  as  it  is  not  so 
much  infested  with  insects.  The  lumber  is  used  for  posts,  tele- 
graph poles,  piles,  beams  and  joists  and  in  ship  building.  The 
bark  is  used  in  tanning  leather.  One  tree,  grown  at  Owatonna, 
Minnesota,  attained  a  height  of  about  fifty  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  fifteen  inches  in  thirty  years,  but  so  rapid  a  growth  is  uncom- 
mon here. 

Genus  PICIJA. 

Leaves  evergreen,  scattered,  not  grouped  in  sheaths,  jointed 
on  a  persistent  base,  needle  shaped,  generally  four-angled,  short, 
pointing  every  way,  and  all  of  one  kind.  Flowers  appear,  in 
spring,  monoecious;  the  staminate  catkins  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  of  the  preceding  year;  the  pistillate  catkins  terminal  ovoid 
or  oblong.  Fruit  a  cone,  maturing  the  first  year,  pendulous  with 
thin  tough  scales  that  open  when  ripe  and  dry,  to  liberate  the 
two,  winged  seeds,  found  at  the  base  of  each  scale.  Trees  tall 
and  pyramidal  or  conical  in  form. 

Picea  canadensis.    (P.  alba.}    White  Spruce. 

Leaves  slender,  one-half  to  one  inch  long,  varying  in  color 
from  light  glaucous  to  dark  green,  falling  during  fourth  and  fifth 
seasons.  Cones  oblong,  one  to  two  inches  in  length,  deciduous 


SPRUCE. 


Plate  8.     Picea  canadensis.     White  Spruce. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flower,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flower,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Anther,  side  view,  en- 
larged. 4.  Pollen  grain,  showing  air  sacs,  enlarged.  5.  Branch  bearing 
ripened  cones,  one-half  natural  size.  6.  Scale  of  cone  with  seeds  attached, 
natural  size.  7.  Scale  of  cone,  rear  view,  natural  size.  8.  Cross  section  of 
needle,  enlarged.  9.  General  view  of  tree. 


218  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

in  autumn  or  winter  of  first  year;  scales  thin,  with  entire  mar- 
gins, not  rigid;  seeds  small,  with  thin  wings.  A  graceful  tree 
of  pyramidal  habit  and  horizontal  branches,  sometimes  attaining 
a  height  of  over  100  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  two  feet.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  value  for  ornamental  planting. 

Distribution. — In  the  United  States  it  is  found  in  Northern 
Maine  and  westward  in  certain  localities  to  Montana.  It  is  also 
found  in  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  westward  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  north  to  Alaska.  It  reaches  its  best  development 
growing  in  moist  soil.  It  is  found  more  or  less  throughout 
Northeastern  Minnesota,  but  is  especially  abundant  near  the 
northern  boundary. 

Propagation. — The  species  is  grown  from  seeds  and  the  varie- 
ties by  grafting.  The  seeds  of  the  White  Spruce  are  often  in- 
fested by  a  weevil,  which  fact,  together  with  their  small  size  and 
the  difficulty  in  gathering  them,  makes  them  high  in  price  and 
often  difficult  to  obtain.  On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  Nor- 
way Spruce  seeds  are  obtained  they  are  preferably  sold  by  nur- 
serymen. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  compact,  straight  grained,  of 
only  moderate  strength,  nearly  odorless;  color,  light  yellow; 
sapwood  hardly  distinguishable.  Specific  gravity,  0.4051;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  25.25  pounds. 

Uses. — The  White  Spruce  is  one  of  the  best  evergreens  for 
planting  in  this  section,  generally  rather  slow  in  growth,  but 
forming  pretty  conical  trees.  The  wood  is  largely  used  for  gen- 
eral construction,  spars,  canoe  and  boat  building,  oars,  paddles, 
tripods,  step  ladders,  baseball  bats,  flooring,  sounding  boards  for 
musical  instruments,  paper  pulp,  nail  kegs,  casks,  lime  and 
cement  barrels,  butter  tubs  and  pails,  excelsior  and  charcoal.  It 
is  not  distinguished  from  Black  Spruce  in  commerce.  Spruce 
chewing  gum  is,  in  part,  the  product  of  this  tree. 

Picea  mariana.      (P.  nigra.}     Black   Spruce.      Double 
Spruce. 

Leaves  deep  green,  short,  about  one-half  inch  in  length,  scat- 
tered thickly  over  the  branches,  falling  during  the  fourth  and 
fifth  seasons.  Cones  ovoid,  oblong,  one  to  one  and  three-quar- 
ter inches  long,  persistent;  scales  very  thin,  rigid,  with  an 


SPRUCE. 


219 


Plate  9.    Picea  mariana.     Black  Spruce. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Anther,  enlarged.  4. 
Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Branch  bearing  ripened  cones,  one- 
half  natural  size.  6.  Seeds,  enlarged.  7.  Scale,  front  view,  natural  size. 
8.  Scale,  rear  view,  natural  size.  9.  General  view  of  tree  as  found  in  the 
muskegs  of  northern  Minnesota. 


220  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

uneven  margin;  seeds  small,  with  rigid  wings.  In  Maine  and 
elsewhere  a  large  tree,  forming  valuable  forests.  In  this  section 
occasionally  a  large  tree,  but  generally  small,  and  seldom  cut  for 
timber. 

Distribution.— Northern  United  States,  Canada  and  northward, 
forming  large  forests  in  some  sections.  In  Minnesota  it  is  found 
in  the  White  Pine  belt,  though  most  common  in  the  extreme 
northern  portions.  Generally  found  in  swamps  known  as  mus- 
kegs, on  which  the  trees,  with  their  roots  half  submerged,  make 
a  very  slow  growth.  One  specimen,  the  rings  of  which  showed 
it  to  be  seventy-three  years  old,  was  only  one  and  one-eighth 
inches  in  diameter. 

Propagation. — By  seeds.  When  plants  are  desired  they  may 
be  easily  gathered  from  the  woods  in  this  state. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  strong,  compact  and  satiny; 
color,  reddish  with  nearly  white  sapwood.  Specific  gravity, 
0.458;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  28.57  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Black  Spruce  is  a  poor  ornamental  tree,  as  it  soon 
loses  its  lower  branches,  which  with  its  dead  persistent  cones 
and  dark-colored  bark  makes  it  appear  unsightly.  It  is  also  a 
short-lived  tree  on  dry  land  in  this  section.  Most  of  the  Christ- 
mas trees  in  our  market  of  recent  years  have  been  of  this  kind, 
although  the  Balsam  Fir  is  also  used.  The  wood  is  used  here  to 
some  extent  and  elsewhere  in  large  quantities  for  paper  pulp,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  highly  esteemed.  In  the  eastern  range  of  this 
tree  its  wood  is  largely  used  for  flooring,  masts,  spars,  general 
house  and  ship  building,  sounding  boards  for  instruments,  and 
for  any  other  purpose  where  a  light,  stiff  wood  is  needed.  The 
gum  which  this  tree  exudes  is  valued  as  chewing  gum,  and  the 
gathering  of  it  is  quite  an  industry  -in  some  sections.  The 
essence  of  spruce  is  made  by  boiling  the  young  branches  in  water 
and  evaporating  the  decoction.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
spruce  beer,  which  is  a  pleasant  and  wholesome  beverage,  and 
it  is  sometimes  useful  on  long  sea  voyages  as  a  preventive  of 
scurvy. 


SPRUCE.  221 

Picea  parryana.     (P.  pungens.}    Colorado  Blue  Spruce. 

Silver  Spruce.     White  Spruce.     Blue  Spruce. 

Leaves  about  one  inch  long,  rather  broad,  rigid,  stout, 
pointed,  usually  incurved,  falling  during  sixth  and  seventh  years; 
branchlets  smooth  and  shining.  Cones  light  brown  in  color, 
very  prickly,  three  to  five  inches  long,  cylindrical,  with  more  or 
less  elongated  thin  tn^ncate  wavy  scales;  seeds  small  but  larger 
than  those  of  P.  engelmanni.  A  large  tree,  of  strictly  conical 
growth  and  spreading  branches.  The  seedlings  vary  greatly  in 
color,  from  a  bright  glaucous  blue  to  dark  green.  The  form  hav- 
ing light  colored  foliage  has  become  known  as  Picea  pungens 
glanca. 

Distribution. — Valley  of  the  Wind  river  south  through  the 
mountain  ranges  of  Wyoming,  Colorado  and  Utah. 

Propagation. — The  species  by  seeds  and  the  varieties  by  graft- 
ing on  the  same  or  other  species. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Soft,  weak,  light,  close  grained,  satiny; 
color,  very  light  brown,  or  often  nearly  white;  sapwood  hardly 
distinguishable.  Specific  gravity,  0.374;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot, 
23.3  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  is  a  handsome  ornamental 
tree  that  is  now  very  popular  with  tree  planters  in  this  section 
and  elsewhere  in  the  Northern  States.  It  is  very  ornamental 
when  young,  but  its  later  development  is  often  not  so  pretty, 
and  if  not  growing  rapidly  when  older  it  has  a  rather  ragged 
appearance;  of  slower  growth  than  the  white  or  Norway  Spruce, 
very  hardy  and  well  worthy  of  trial  in  a  small  way.  The  wood  is 
used  within  its  range  for  fuel  and  timber,  although  it  is  nowhere 
very  abundant.  A  hedge  of  this  tree  may  be  grown  so  close  that 
even  a  dog  cannot  get  through,  as  the  sharp-pointed  leaves  are 
exceedingly  pungent. 

Picea    engelmanni.      Engelmann    Spruce.      Mountain 
Spruce.      White  Spruce. 

Leaves  three-quarters  to  one  inch  long,  pointed,  but  not  as 
prickly  as  P.  parrayana;  branchlets  pubescent.  Cones  solitary, 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  long;  scales  rhombic,  the  upper 
ends  appearing  as  though  broken  off;  seeds  smaller  than  those  of 
P.  parrayana.  In  form  and  color  of  foliage  this  species  resembles 


222  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

P.  parrayana,  but  makes  a  larger  tree,  often  growing  100  feet  in 
height.  In  some  nurseries  it  is  customary  to  tell  the  Colorado  Blue 
Spruce  from  the  Engelmann  Spruce  by  grasping  the  top  of  the 
young  tree  with  the  hand,  when,  if  it  pricks  only  a  little,  the  tree 
is  set  down  as  Engelmann  Spruce,  while  if  the  pricking  is  unen- 
durable, it  is  called  Colorado  Blue  Spruce.  This  method  of 
determining  the  species  generally  gives  correct  results,  but  a 
certain  way  is  to  examine  the  bark  of  the  new  growth  between 
the  needles  which,  if  slightly  downy,  indicates  the  Engelmann 
Spruce,  and  if  smooth  and  shining,  the  Colorado  Blue  Spruce. 

Distribution. — Northern  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Colorado, 
northward  to  British  Columbia,  in  the  mountains  at  high  eleva- 
tions. 

Propagation. — By  seeds. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Very  light,  soft,  weak,  very  close  straight 
grained,  compact,  satiny;  color,  pale  yellow,  tinged  with  red; 
sap  wood  hardly  distinguishable.  Specific  gravity,  0.3449;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  21.49  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Engelmann  Spruce  is  a  valuable  ornamental  and 
timber  tree,  resembling  the  Blue  Spruce,  but  it  has  been  tried  to 
only  a  limited  extent.  It  is  the  most  valuable  timber  tree  of  the 
central  Rocky  Mountain  region,  where  it  forms  extensive  for- 
ests. In  Colorado  it  is  manufactured  into  lumber,  and  is  largely 
used  for  fuel,  charcoal,  etc.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tannin,  and  in 
Utah  is  sometimes  used  for  tanning  leather. 

Picea  excelsa.    Norway  Spruce. 

Leaves  long,  deep  green  in  color,  falling  during  the  fifth  sea- 
son. Cones  cylindrical,  large,  five  to  seven  inches  long,  light 
colored,  often  very  conspicuous  in  the  tops  of  the  trees.  A  fine, 
large  conical  tree,  with  stout  branches  and  generally  pendulous 
branchlets.  There  are  numerous  horticultural  varieties,  some  of 
the  dwarf  forms  growing  only  three  to  five  feet  high. 

Distribution. — Native  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation. — Easily  grown  from  seeds,  which  are  used  in 
large  quantities.  The  varieties  are  propagated  by  grafting  on 
the  species. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  strong  and  fine  grained.  Specific 
gravity,  air  dried,  0.47, 


SPRUCE. 


223 


Plate  10.     Picea  excelsa.    Norway  Spruce. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flower,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Winter  branch,  showing 
buds,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  front  view,  en- 
larged. 5.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  rear  view,  enlarged.  6.  Scale  of  pis- 
tillate flower,  side  view,  enlarged.  7.  Bract  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged. 
8.  Anther,  side  view,  enlarged.  9.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size. 
10.  Scale  of  cone  with  seeds  attached,  one-half  natural  size.  n.  Seeds  with 
wings  attached.  12.  Seed,  natural  size.  13.  Seedling,  one-half  natural  size. 
14.  General  view  of  tree  showing  drooping  branches  and  pyramidal  form. 


224  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Uses. — The  Norway  Spruce  has  been  largely  planted  in  the 
more  Eastern  States,  and  is  a  general  favorite,  as  it  grows  more 
rapidly  than  any  of  our  native  spruces  and  is  very  graceful  and 
stately  in  form.  There  are  many  plantings  of  this  tree  in  Minne- 
sota, and  they  are  holding  on  well;  yet  the  White  Spruce  is  a 
safer  tree  for  general  planting,  and  generally  grows  nearly  as 
fast.  Since  it  is  more  difficult  to  obtain  the  seed  of  the  White 
Spruce,  it  is  probable  that  the  Norway  Spruce  will  continue  to 
be  planted.  The  wood  of  Norway  Spruce  is  much  used  in 
Europe,  and  is  largely  grown  there  for  paper  pulp,  fuel  and  tim- 
ber. The  young  branches  are  used  in  making  the  essence  of 
spruce,  as  described  under  Black  Spruce.  The  bark  is  used  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  Europe  for  tanning  purposes. 

Genus  TSUGA. 
A  genus  of  but  a  single  species  in  our  section. 

Tsuga  canadensis.    Hemlock. 

Leaves  linear,  flat,  one-half  inch  long,  obtuse,  whitened  beneath, 
short  petioled  and  diverging  from  the  sides  of  the  branchlet  so 
as  to  make  it  appear  flattened,  falling  during  second  and  third 
years.  Cones  small,  scarcely  longer  than  the  leaves,  pendent 
from  the  tips  of  the  branches  of  the  preceding  year,  persistent, 
with  inconspicuous  bracts;  seeds  quite  small,  with  thin  wings, 
maturing  the  first  year.  A  large,  graceful  tree.  There  are  sev- 
eral horticultural  varieties  in  cultivation. 

Distribution. — From  Nova  Scotia  west  to  Minnesota,  south  as 
far  as  Delaware  and  along  the  mountains  to  Alabama.  Scarcely 
found  in  Minnesota,  though  common  near  its  eastern  borders,  in 
Wisconsin.  A  few  specimens  are  said  to  have  been  found  near 
Cloquet,  and  perhaps  occasionally  elsewhere  near  the  eastern 
boundary. 

Propagation. — The  species  by  seeds  and  the  varieties  by  graft- 
ing on  the  species. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  brittle,  coarse  grained  and 
not  very  easily  worked;  color,  very  light  red  or  brown,  with  still 
lighter  colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity,  0.4239;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  26.42  pounds. 


DOUGLAS  SPRUCE.  225 

Uses. — The  Hemlock  is  unsafe  for  general  planting  in  this 
section,  as  it  is  very  liable  to  injury  from  cold  winds  and  drouth, 
but  in  extreme  Eastern  Minnesota,  on  moist  soil  and  in  pro- 
tected locations,  it  has  proved  desirable  for  ornamental  planting. 
The  wood  of  the  Hemlock  is  used  for  framing  and  general  con- 
struction purposes  where  fine  finish  is  not  needed,  wood  work, 
furniture,  picture  moldings,  ties,  fencing  and  charcoal.  It  is 
loose,  and  warps  badly  when  exposed  to  the  air,  but  stands  fairly 
well  in  contact  with  the  ground.  The  bark  is  used  in  immense 
quantities  for  tanning  leather,  and  is  largely  obtained  for  this 
purpose  in  Wisconsin. 

Genus  PSEUDOTSUGA. 

A  genus  of  a  single  species  midway  between  the  firs  and  hem- 
lock. Leaves  somewhat  two-ranked  by  a  twist  at  the  base. 
Cones  upright,  maturing  the  first  season. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia.   (P.  douglasii.']  Douglas  Spruce. 

Red  Fir.     Douglas  Fir. 

Leaves  linear,  distinctly  petioled,  mostly  blunt  or  rounded, 
nearly  an  inch  long  on  old  trees,  but  a  little  longer  on  young 
thrifty  trees,  falling  during  fifth  season;  in  color  generally  a  rich 
dark  green,  but  some  specimens  occur  on  which  the  foliage  is 
a  light  glaucous  blue.  Cones  two  to  four  inches  long,  cylin- 
drical; bracts  toothed,  protruding  above  the  scales,  and  giving 
a  fringed  appearance  to  the  cones;  seeds  triangular,  reddish  on 
the  upper  side,  flat,  and  white  on  the  lower  side.  A  gigantic 
tree,  sometimes  200  to  300  feet  in  height.  When  young  it  is  sel- 
dom very  symmetrical  in  form,  and  is  likely  to  produce  heavy 
limbs  unless  severely  crowded. 

Distribution. — Throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
mountains  of  California,  reaching  its  greatest  height  in  Oregon. 

Propagation. — One  of  the  easiest  conifers  to  grow  from  seeds, 
which  may  be  readily  obtained  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Hard,  strong,  durable,  varying  greatly 
with  age  and  conditions  of  density,  quality  and  amount  of  sap- 
wood;  difficult  to  work;  color  varying  from  light  red  to  yellow; 
sapwood  nearly  white.  Specific  gravity,  0.5157;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  32.23  pounds. 
15 


226 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  ii.    Psendotsuga  taxifolia.     Douglas  Spruce. 


i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Stam 
iuate  flower,  enlarged.  3.  Branch  bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural 
size.  4.  Seeds  with  wings  attached,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Fruiting 
branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6.  Cone-scale,  lower  side,  showing  bract, 
one-half  natural  size.  7.  Uone-scale,  upper  side,  showing  seed  scars,  one- 
half  natural  size.  8.  Scale  of  cone,  side  view,  showing  bract,  one-half  natural 
size.  9.  Needle,  natural  size.  10.  Cross  section  of  needle,  n.  Winter  buds. 


BALSAM  FIR.  227 

Uses. — The  Douglas  Spruce  is  a  fine  ornamental  tree  of  grace- 
ful proportions,  good  color,  rapid  growth  and  wonderful  hardi- 
ness. Probably  one  of  the  most  valuable  evergreens  for  general 
planting  in  Minnesota,  and  apparently  destined  to  partly  super- 
sede the  White  and  Norway  Spruce  for  this  purpose.  It  is  also 
the  most  promising  foreign  tree  for  sowing  on  the  cut-over  tim- 
ber lands  of  this  section,  and  should  be  largely  experimented 
with  for  this  purpose.  Two  varieties  are  distinguished  by  lum- 
bermen, the  Red  and  the  Yellow  Fir,  the  former  is  coarse 
grained  and  dark  colored,  and  considered  less  valuable  than  the 
latter.  Both  kinds  are  largely  manufactured  into  lumber,  and 
used  for  all  kinds  of  construction,  railway  ties,  piles,  etc. 

Genus  ABIES. 

Trees  of  pyramidal  habit.  Leaves  sessile,  flat,  with  the  midrib 
prominent  on  the  lower  surface,  appearing  two-ranked  by  a  twist 
near  the  base,  giving  the  horizontal  branches  a  flat  appearance. 
Cones  erect  on  the  upper  side  of  the  branches,  maturing  the  first 
year,  when  the  scales  fall,  leaving  the  naked  axes  standing  erect 
on  the  branches. 

Abies  balsamea.     Balsam  Fir.     Balsam. 

Leaves  narrow,  linear,  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
long,  dark  green  above,  whitened  on  the  under  side,  falling  dur- 
ing the  fifth  season.  Cones  cylindrical,  two  to  four  inches  long, 
and  one  inch  thick,' violet  colored;  bracts  shorter  than  the  scales 
and  tipped  with  a  slender  point.  The  branches  grow  out  usually 
in  whorls  of  about  five  each,  with  great  regularity,  and  diminish- 
ing in  length  from  below  upwards,  forming  a  symmetrical  pyra- 
midal top.  This  is  a  very  striking  habit,  and  gives  to  the  Balsam 
Fir  swamps  a  characteristic  aspect.  Tree  slender,  sometimes 
eighty  feet  high. 

Distribution. — Northeastern  United  States  and  Canada,  south- 
ward to  Virginia,  westward  beyond  the  Mississippi  and  far  north 
to  Hudson  Bay  and  northwest?  to  Rocky  Mountains;  growing  in 
swamps  and  cold  damp  woods.  In  Minnesota  almost  confined 
to  the  northeastern  half  of  the  state,  extending  south  to  Chisago 
and  Isanti  counties. 


228 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate   12.    Abies  balsamea.     Balsam   Fir. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Anther,  open,  rear  view, 
enlarged.  4.  Branch  bearing  mature  coae,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Branch 
bearing  axes  of  cones  atter  scales  have  fallen,  one-half  natural  size.  6. 
Seeds  with  wings  attached,  natural  size.  7.  Seed,  enlarged.  8.  Scale  ol 
cone,  upper  view,  natural  size.  9.  Scale  of  cone,  lower  view,  natural  size. 


BALSAM  FIR.  229 

Propagation. — The  species  by  seeds,  horticultural  varieties  by 
grafting. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Very  soft,  light,  weak,  not  durable,  with 
distinct  coarse  grain,  color  whitish  with  a  slightly  reddish  tint 
toward  the  heart.  Specific  gravity,  0.3819:  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot,  23.8  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Balsam  Fir  is  very  striking  and  very  pretty  when 
young.  On  moist,  retentive  soil  it  holds  on  well  in  this  section, 
but  is  poorly  adapted  for  general  planting,  and  should  be  used 
sparingly,  if  at  all.  The  wood  is  of  very  little  value,  and  is  sel- 
dom sawed  into  lumber,  but  is  used  for  laths,  shingles,  boxes, 
packing  and  pulp  making.  It  furnishes  Canada  Balsam,  which 
is  an  aromatic  oil-like  resin  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance. It  is  obtained  by  puncturing  the  vescicles  (blisters) 
formed  under  the  bark  of  the  stem  and  branches,  which  contain 
from  a  few  drops  to  a  half  teaspoonful  each.  This  is  used  in  the 
arts  and  medicinally  in  chronic  bronchial  and  catarrhal  affections. 
The  smaller  branches  exhale  a  delightful  odor,  and  are  preferred 
by  campers  in  the  woods  for  beds. 

Abies  concolor.    White  Fir.     Silver  Fir. 

Leaves  mostly  obtuse,  pale  green,  one  to  two  and  one-half 
inches  long,  with  two  resin  ducts  close  to  the  epidermis  of  the 
lower  surface.  Cones  oblong,  cylindrical,  three  to  five  inches 
long,  one  to  one  and  three-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  pale  green 
or  sometimes  dull  purple.  A  large  tree. 

Distribtition. — From  Arizona  to  Southern  Colorado,  Utah,  Cal- 
ifornia and  Oregon. 

Propagation. — By  seeds. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Very  light,  soft,  coarse  grained,  compact, 
not  strong;  color  very  light  brown  or  nearly  white,  with  some- 
what darker  sapwood.  Specific  gravity,  0.3638;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot,  22.67  pounds. 

Uses. — The  White  Fir  is  justly  gaining  in  popularity  as  an 
ornamental  evergreen.  When  young  it  often  spreads  out  on  the 
ground,  and  seems  slow  to  make  an  upward  growth,  but  after  a 
few  years  it  takes  on  a  good  broad  conical  form.  Its  rather  long 
leaves  of  a  pale  green  color,  and  its  light  bark  and  good  form 
give  it  a  very  pretty  appearance.  It  has  stood  for  more  than  ten 


230  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

years  on  the  grounds  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  with- 
out serious  injury,  and  has  made  pretty  specimens  about  six  feet 
high  and  nearly  as  broad.  It  undoubtedly  prefers  a  moist  soil, 
though  it  has  done  very  well  on  good  retentive  upland.  The 
wood  is  of  very  little  value,  but  is  used  within  its  range  for  cheap 
packing  cases,  etc. 

Genus  THUJA. 

Flowers  mostly  monoecious,  on  different  branches  in  small 
terminal  catkins,  opening  in  May;  anther  cells,  two  to  four. 
Scales  of  the  pistillate  flowers,  eight  to  twelve.  Ovules,  two  to 
four.  Fruit  an  erect,  dry,  loose  cone,  from  one-third  to  one-half 
of  an  inch  long,  maturing  in  the  autumn  of  the  first  season,  but 
remaining  on  the  branch  until  the  appearance  of  the  new  growth 
the  following  spring.  Seeds  oval,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
wide,  and  winged  all  round.  Leaves  evergreen,  small,  awl  or 
scale  shaped,  closely  imbricated  and  appressed  so  as  to  make  a 
flat  two-edged  branchlet.  On  the  leading  shoots  the  leaves  are 
often  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long.  A  small  genus  of  evergreen 
trees  and  shrubs.  Only  one  species,  the  Arborvitae,  comes  within 
our  range. 

Thuja  occidentalis.    Arborvitae.    White  Cedar. 

A  tree  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high,  seldom  two  feet  in  diameter,  but 
occasionally  much  larger  than  this.  There  are  many  varieties, 
the  most  of  which  are  characterized  by  some  peculiar  habit  of  the 
branches  or  by  peculiar  coloring  of  the  leaves. 

Distribution. — From  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  north- 
ern Pennsylvania  and  North  Carolina,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
Central  Minnesota.  A  very  common  tree  in  cold  swamps 
and  along  river  banks  and  lake  shores  where  the  soil  is  moist. 
In  Minnesota  very  common  in  the  northeastern  portion,  west  to 
Roseau  county  and  south  to  the  south  shore  of  Mille  Lacs  and 
the  mouth  of  Snake  river.  It  also  occurs  occasionally  as  far 
south  as  the  sdutheastern  portion  of  Winona  county.  In  some 
sections,  as  along  the  Mississippi  river,  in  the  northern  part  of 
Aitkin  county,  it  covers  large  areas  with  an  almost  impenetrable 
growth,  which  are  known  as  cedar  swamps.  Not  found  in  the 
western  or  southwestern  parts  of  this  state. 


ARBORVITJE. 


231 


Plate  13.     Thuja  occidentalis.    Arborvitae. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate  flower,  en- 
larged. 3.  Stamens,  enlarged.  4.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  of 
pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  6.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7. 
Cone.  8.  Scale  with  seed  attached,  natural  size.  9.  Longitudinal  section 
of  seed.  10.  Embryo,  n.  A  leaf,  natural  size.  12.  Cross  section  of  a 
branch,  reduced.  13.  Seedling,  reduced. 


232  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Propagation. — The  seeds  of  the  Arborvitae  grow  readily,  but 
the  seedlings  must  be  protected  from  the  full  sunlight  for  the  first 
year.  The  many  varieties  are  propagated  from  cuttings  in  a  cool 
greenhouse  or  frame,  and  root  very  slowly. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Very  light,  soft,  close  and  often  spirally 
grained,  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  light  yellowish 
brown  in  color,  turning  darker  on  exposure;  sapwood  thin  and 
nearly  white.  Specific  gravity,  0.3164;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot, 
19.72  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Arborvitae  is  a  popular  plant  for  evergreen 
hedges,  as  it  forms  a  close  compact  top  when  pruned,  and  is 
of  a  bright  green  color.  It  stands  well  in  this  section  when 
growing  on  good  retentive  land,  but  suffers  from  a  deficiency 
of  moisture  in  the  soil  and  occasionally  from  severe  winds 
in  winter,  and  on  this  account  does  best  in  somewhat  shel- 
tered locations.  The  wood  is  largely  used  for  telegraph  poles 
and  cross  arms  for  same,  fence  posts,  shingles,  paving  blocks 
and  for  the  siding  of  light  weight  boats  and  canoes,  also  for 
tubs,  pails,  tanks  and  dash  churns.  The  thick  layers  of  the 
sapwood,  which  are  easily  separated,  are  manufactured  by  the 
Canadian  Indians  into  baskets  and  are  used  to  strengthen  birch 
bark  canoes.  The  fresh  branches  often  serve  the  purpose  of 
brooms.  A  decoction  or  tincture  of  the  young  branches  of  this 
tree  is  used  for  intermittent  fevers,  coughs,  scurvy,  rheumatism, 
etc.,  and  externally  to  remove  warts.  "It  is  also  used  in  homeo- 
pathic practice. 

Varieties. — 

Thuja  occidentalis  wareana.     (T.  sibiHca.}     Siberian 
Arborvitae. 

This  is  of  a  dark  rich  green  color  and  compact  habit.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  kinds  for  favorable  locations,  but  not  so  hardy  as 
the  species  or  variety  next  described. 

Thuja    occidentalis    fastigiata.       (7".  o.  fyramidalis.') 
Pyramidal  Arborvitse. 

Branches  and  leaves  very  distinct,  fine  and  handsome.  Form 
upright,  regular,  pyramidal  or  almost  columnar.  Valuable  for 
variety,  probably  as  hardy  as  the  species  and  hardier  than  most 
of  the  varieties. 


JUNIPER.  233 

Thuja   occidentalis   aurea.     Douglas    Golden   Arbor- 
vitae. 

In  habit  like  the  species,  but  with  a  bright  yellow  color  to  the 
leaves;  conspicuous  and  pretty;  rather  more  tender  than  the 
species  and  occasionally  sunscalds  severely. 

Genus  JUNIP^RUS. 

A  large  genus  of  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs.  Flowers  naked, 
dioecious,  axillary  or  terminal.  Fruit  a  fleshy  cone,  in  some 
species  resembling  a  berry  or  drupe  more  than  a  true  cone. 

Juniperus  virginiana.   Red  Juniper.    Red  Cedar.    Savin. 

Leaves  small,  evergreen,  opposite,  scale-like  and  awl-shaped, 
the  former  sort  minute,  the  latter  about  one-half  inch  long  and 
spreading.  Flowers  dioecious,  or  very  rarely  monoecious;  the 
small  solitary  catkins  upon  lateral  twigs  appearing  in  this  section 
in  May.  Fruit  a  small  dark  colored  fleshy  berry-like  cone  with 
a  light  bluish  bloom,  maturing  late  in  the  fall  of  the  first  year. 
Fruit,  leaves  and  wood  are  aromatic  and  resinous. 

Distribution. — It  is  the  most  widely  distributed  conifer  of 
North  America.  It  ranges  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  from  Northern  Minnesota  to  Florida.  In  West- 
ern Louisiana  and  Texas  it  makes  a  tree  sometimes  eighty  feet 
high  and  three  or  more  feet  in  diameter,  but  it  is  usually  very 
much  smaller.  In  this  section  it  is  nowhere  abundant,  rarely 
thirty  feet  high,  and  generally  short  and  bushy.  In  the  north  of 
its  range  it  grows  on  dry  land,  while  in  the  south  it  is  often  found 
in  swamps,  but  it  is  not  particular  about  soil. 

Propagation. — By  seeds.  For  planting  the  berries  should  be 
gathered  in  autumn,  then  bruised  and  mixed  with  an  equal  or 
greater  bulk  of  wet  wood  ashes  or  strong  lye.  In  three  weeks 
the  ashes  or  lye  will  have  cut  the  resinous  gum  so  that  the  seeds 
can  be  washed  clean.  They  should  then  be  stratified  over  winter, 
and  be  sown  in  the  spring,  as  recommended  for  coniferous  seeds 
in  general.  The  bed  should  be  covered  with  mulch  for  the  first 
season,  as  the  seeds  do  not  usually  start  until  the  second  year. 
There  are  a  number  of  varieties  which  may  be  propagated  by 
cuttings  of  the  young  wood  or  by  layers. 


234 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  14.    Juniperus  virginiana.     Red  Cedar. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Stam- 
inate  flower,  enlarged.  3.  Stamen,  enlarged.  4.  Flowering  branch  of  pis- 
tillate tree,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  6.  A  seed, 
enlarged.  7.  Scale  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  8.  Fruiting  branch,  one- 
half  natural"  size.  9.  Transverse  sections  of  iruit,  enlarged.  10.  Longi- 
tudinal section  of  seed,  enlarged,  n.  Seedling,  one-half  natural  size. 


JUNIPER.  235 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  close  grained,  but  brittle  and 
not  strong,  dull  red,  with  thin,  nearly  white,  sapwood,  very 
fragrant,  easily  worked  and  extremely  durable  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  Specific  gravity,  0.4926;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  30.7 
pounds. 

Uses. — The  Red  Cedar  is  a  valuable  ornamental  tree  for  this 
section,  of  rather  slow  growth  except  when  young,  but  very 
hardy  and  durable.  It  makes  an  excellent  low  windbreak  or 
hedge,  and  bears  close  pruning  without  injury.  The  leaves  gen- 
erally turn  brown  by  the  latter  part  of  winter.  The  wood  is  used 
where  great  durability  in  contact  with  the  soil  is  required,  as  for 
telegraph  poles  and  fence  posts,  for  interior  finishing,  cabinet 
making  and  for  lining  chests  and  closets  in  which  woolens  are 
preserved  against  the  attacks  of  moths.  It  is  almost  the  only  wood 


H 


Figure  49.     Common  Juniper. 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils,  and  is  the  most  highly 
esteemed  of  any  wood  for  the  manufacture  of  pails,  tubs,  brush 
and  tool  handles,  faucets.  A  decoction  of  the  fruit  and  leaves  is 
occasionally  used  medicinally  and  an  infusion  of  the  berries  as 
a  diuretic  and  in  homeopathic  remedies.  Oil  of  Red  Cedar  is 
distilled  from  the  leaves  and  wood,  and  is  used  principally  in  per- 
fumery. 

Jtmiperus  communis.     Dwarf  Juniper.    Common  Juni- 
per.    Trailing  Juniper. 

Leaves  in  whorls  of  three,  pointed  at  the  base,  linear,  lanceo- 
late, .'pointed,  dark  green  on  the  lower  side,  channelled  and 
glaucous  white  on  the  upper  side,  one-third  to  one-half  inch  long, 
spreading  at  nearly  right  angles  to  the  branches,  have  a  strong, 
unpleasant,  slightly  astringent  taste,  during  winter  turn  to  a  rich 
bronze  color  on  the  lower  surface  and  remain  on  tree  for  five  or 
six  years.  Flowers  open  late  in  spring.  Fruit  during  the  first 


236  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

year  does  not  enlarge,  but  resembles  the  flower  bud,  and  does  not 
ripen  until  the  autumn  of  the  third  season,  when  it  becomes 
fleshy  and  berry-like.  Sometimes  a  low,  crooked  tree,  but  in  our 
range,  and  commonly  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  a  low 
spreading  shrub,  often  forming  dense  mats  three  or  four  feet 
high.  In  Southern  Illinois  it  frequently  attains  a  height  of  twen- 
ty-five feet  and  forms  trunks  eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter. 
The  foliage  of  the  tree  form  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  dwarf. 

Distribution. — The  common  Juniper  is  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed tree  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  In  North  America  it 
ranges  from  Labrador  and  Greenland  to  Pennsylvania  on  the 
east,  across  the  continent  to  Alaska  and  Northern  California,  and 
along  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Northern  Nebraska,  Western 
Texas  and  Arizona.  In  the  old  world  it  is  widely  spread  over 
Northern  and  Central  Europe  and  Asia.  In  Minnesota  often 
found  along  the  bluffs  of  rivers. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  as  for  Red  Cedar. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Hard,  close-grained,  light  brown  with 
whitish  sapwood,  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  very  durable  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil. 

Uses. — The  great  hardiness  and  pretty  dwarf  habit  of  the  com- 
mon Juniper  make  it  desirable  in  some  situations  for  ornamental 
planting.  It  readily  yields  itself  to  shearing.  Many  fine  speci- 
mens may  be  seen  in  the  parks  of  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  and 
elsewhere.  In  India  the  wood  and  twigs  are  burned  for  incense, 
and  on  the  high  Himalayan  passes  are  used  for  fuel.  The  fruit 
is  gathered  in  Europe  in  large  quantities  for  flavoring  gin,  and  is 
occasionally  used  in  medicine. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  that  are  used  in  orna- 
mental planting  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  some  of  which  are 
distinguished  by  the  color  of  the  foliage,  and  others  by  the  habit 
of  growth,  which  may  be  columnar  or  pyramidal  or  dwarf  and 
compact.  Some  of  these  varieties  in  English  and  Dutch  gardens 
are  trained  into  the  shapes  of  globes,  bowls,  animals  and  other 
fantastic  forms.  The  Swedish  Juniper,  one  of  the  most  distinct 
varieties,  has  erect  branches,  which  form  a  narrow  pyramidal 
head. 


WALNUT.  237 


JUGLANDACEAE.    WALNUT  FAMILY. 

Trees  with  alternate,  pinnately-compound  leaves,  no  stipules. 
Flowers  monoecious;  the  staminate  in  catkins  with  or  without 
an  irregular  calyx  and  several  stamens;  the  pistillate  solitary  or 
in  clusters  of  two  to  five,  their  common  peduncle  terminating  the 
shoot  of  the  season;  calyx,  three  to  five  lobed;  stigmas,  sessile, 
two-lobed,  persistent.  Ovary  one-celled  or  incompletely  two  to 
four-celled,  with  a  single  ovule  erect  from  its  base;  ripens  into 
a  large  fruit,  the  bony  inner  part  of  which  forms  the  shell  of  the 
nut  and  the  fleshy  outer  part,  the  husk.  Seed  four-lobed,  filled 
with  fleshy  oily  embryo  and  large  crumpled  or  corrugated  coty- 
ledons. 

Genus  JUGI,ANS. 

Leaves  odd-pinnate  with  numerous  serrate  leaflets;  petioles 
long,  grooved  on  the  upper  side,  gradually  enlarged  towards  the 
base.  In  falling,  the  leaves  expose  large,  conspicuous,  elevated, 
obcordate,  five-lobed  scars.  Flowers  monoecious,  opening  in 
late  spring  after  the  leaves;  the  staminate  in  catkins,  solitary  or 
in  pairs  from  the  wood  of  the  preceding  year,  each  with  eight  to 
forty  stamens  on  very  short  filaments  and  a  three  to  six-lobed 
calyx;  the  pistillate  solitary  or  several  in  a  cluster  on  a  branch 
of  the  season;  calyx  four-toothed,  bearing  in  its  sinuses  four  small 
petals;  stigmas  two,  somewhat  club-shaped  and  fringed.  Fruit 
large,  drupaceous,  marked  at  the  apex  with  the  remnant  of  the 
style  and  covered  with  a  fibrous,  spongy,  somewhat  fleshy,  inde- 
hiscent  epicarp  (shuck)  and  a  rough,  irregularly  furrowed  endo- 
carp  (shell);  embryo  edible.  Trees  with  sweet,  watery  juice, 
furrowed,  scaly,  resinous,  aromatic  bark  and  pith  that  separates 
into  thin  transverse  layers.  To  this  genus  belong  our  native 
Black  Walnut  and  Butternut,  and  the  English  Walnut  (/.  regia) 
of  commerce,  which  has  been  long  in  cultivation,  and  is  probably 
a  native  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Japanese  use  in  large  quantities  a 
walnut  belonging  to  this  genus.  The  species  here  described  have 
long  tap  roots  and  but  few  lateral  roots.  For  this  reason  they  do 
not  transplant  easily  except  when  very  young,  or  unless  the  tap 
roots  are  cut  when  the  seedlings  are  small.  In  the  latter  case 


238  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

lateral  roots  are  produced  which  may  be  saved  in  transplanting. 
It  is  desirable  to  plant  the  nuts  where  the  trees  are  to  remain. 

Juglans  nigra.    Black  Walnut. 

Leaves  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  leaflets  in  seven 
to  eleven  pairs,  ovate-lanceolate,  lower  surface  and  petioles  min- 
utely glandular  pubescent,  aromatic  when  bruised.  Fruit  odorif- 
erous, spongy,  usually  globose,  but  occasionally  oval,  solitary  or 
in  pairs,  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
rough  dotted  surface  not  as  deeply  furrowed  as  the  Butternut.  A 
large  tree,  sometimes  100  feet  high  and  four  to  six  feet  or  more  in 
diameter.  When  growing  in  the  open  it  develops  a  round  head 
and  casts  a  dense  shade. 

Distribution. — From  Western  Massachusetts  to  Southern 
Minnesota  and  Eastern  Kansas,  south  to  Western  Florida  and 
the  valley  of  the  San  Antonio  river  in  Texas.  In  Minnesota 
formerly  a  common  tree  along  the  creek  and  river  bottoms  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  state,  and  in  a  few  locations  is  still  rather 
abundant. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  should  be  gathered  in  autumn, 
kept  stratified  with  moist  leaves  or  sand  over  winter,  and  sown 
in  the  spring.  Also  grown  to  some  extent  by  planting  the  seeds 
in  autumn  where  the  trees  are  to  remain.  The  varieties  are 
grown  by  grafting.  Old  trees  may  be  top  grafted  like  apple 
trees. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather  coarse 
grained,  easily  worked,  and  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil. 
Color  a  rich,  dark  brown,  with  a  thin,  light  sapwood.  The  fin- 
ished wood  has  a  satiny  surface,  and  will  take  a  beautiful  polish. 
Specific  gravity,  0.6115;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  38.11  pounds. 

Uses.— the  Black  Walnut  is  frequently  used  for  ornamental 
planting  in  the  parks  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  In  this 
section,  however,  we  reach  the  northern  limit  of  its  range,  and 
find  that  it  is  not  generally  satisfactory  when  planted  in  the  open, 
but  often  does  well  in  protected  locations  and,  on  deep  alluvial 
soils.  It  can  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  in  timber  plant- 
ings in  the  southern  half  of  Minnesota  when  surrounded  by  some 
hardier  tree  to  protect  it  from  the  wind.  It  is  liable  to  sun-scald 
when  the  trunk  is  exposed  in  this  section.  Many  large  planta- 
tions of  this  tree  have  been  made  in  Iowa,  Southern  Minnesota 


WALNUT. 


239 


Plate  15.    Juglans  nigra.     Black  Walnut. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate  flower  before 
anthesis,  enlarged.  3.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  4.  Perianth  of  stam- 
inate  flower,  displayed,  enlarged.  5.  Stamen,  enlarged.  6.  Pistillate  flow- 
er, natural  size.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistillate  flower,  natural  size. 
8.  Leaf,  reduced.  9.  VVinter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size.  10.  Mature 
fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  n.  Walnut  with  husk  removed,  one-half  nat- 
ural size. 


240  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

and  elsewhere.  In  good  locations  the  young  trees  grow  rap- 
idly, and  soon  make  good,  durable  fence  posts  or  nut-bearing 
trees.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  woods  found  in  America, 
and  is  largely  used  in  cabinet  making,  interior  finishing,  floor- 
ing, gun  stocks,  furniture,  saw  handles,  veneering,  and  for- 
merly in  boat  building  and  for  fence  rails  and  posts,  for  which 
it  was  highly  esteemed.  It  is  used  in  the  making  of  school 
apparatus,  artists'  goods,  billiard  tables,  carpet  sweepers,  clock- 
cases,  butter  and  lunch  plates.  This  timber  is  now  very  scarce. 
The  nuts  are  much  sought  for,  and  find  ready  sale.  They  are 
oily,  and  have  a  sweet,  pleasant  taste,  but  become  rancid  with 
age.  The  husks  are  used  for  dyeing,  and  the  leaves  are  sup- 
posed to  possess  medical  properties.  It  was  formerly  believed 
that  this  tree  could  be  grown  at  a  profit  for  its  valuable  timber, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  the  wood  does  not  take  on  its  dark, 
rich,  even  color  until  very  old,  but  remains  for  many  years  a 
mixture  of  yellow  and  brown;  hence  its  cultivation  for  timber 
has  not  proved  so  profitable  as  was  expected.  It  will,  however, 
make  board  timber  in  about  twenty-five  years. 

Juglans  cinerea.     Butternut. 

Leaves  fifteen  to  thirty  inches  long;  leaflets  eleven  to  nine- 
teen, oblong,  lanceolate,  pubescent,  especially  underneath;  peti- 
oles and  branchlets  clammy  pubescent.  Fruit  two  to  three 
inches  long,  very  clammy  pubescent,  of  a  rather  pleasant  odor 
when  fresh,  oblong,  pointed,  two-celled  at  the  base;  nut  shell 
deeply  and  irregularly  furrowed  with  rough,  ragged  ridges; 
embryo  very  rich  in  oil  and  of  a  delicious  flavor.  A  tree  occa- 
sionally 100  feet  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter  in  forests,  but 
generally  much  smaller.  Where  it  grows  in  the  open  it  forms 
an  immense  spreading  top. 

Distribution. — From  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river  to 
Eastern  Dakota,  southward  to  Northern  Georgia  and  Northeast- 
ern Arkansas.  Not  common  south  of  the  Ohio  river.  In  Min- 
nesota common  in  the  southern  part  except  far  southwest, 
extends  north  to  Aitkin  county,  where  trees  have  been  found 
two  feet  or  more  in  diameter. 

Propagation. — Same  as  for  Black  Walnut. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  rather  coarse 
grained,  easily  worked,  with  a  satiny  surface  capable  of  receiving 


BUTTERNUT. 


241 


Plate  16.    Juglans  cinerea.     Butternut. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Pistillate  flower,  en- 
larged. 3.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  4.  Diagram  of  pistillate  flower.  5. 
Diagram  of  staminate  flower.  6.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7. 
Leaf,  reduced.  8.  Winter  branch,  one-half  natural  size. 


16 


242  TREES  OE  MINNESOTA. 

a  beautiful  polish,  light  brown  turning  darker  with  exposure; 
sapwood  thin  and  light  colored.  Specific  gravity,  0.4086;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  25.46  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Butternut  is  occasionally  used  for  ornamental 
planting  in  the  parks  of  this  country,  but  is  seldom  a  safe  tree 
to  depend  on  in  Minnesota  when  growing  in  the  open.  In  pro- 
tected locations  it  may  be  used  as  a  shade  tree,  but  is  more  valua- 
ble in  timber  plantings.  It  is  found  farther  north  than  the  Black 
Walnut,  and  is  somewhat  hardier,  but  is  more  easily  injured  by 
drouth.  The  wood  is  not  so  valuable  as  that  of  the  Black  Wal- 
nut, but  is  nevertheless  very  desirable  for  interior  finishing,  cab- 
inet making  and  furniture  and  tool  handles.  The  nuts,  which 
ripen  in  October,  contain  a  large  amount  of  oil,  are  delicious 
when  fresh,  and  are  generally  preferred  to  the  nuts  of  the  Black 
Walnut,  but  like  them  they  become  rancid  with  age.  The  unripe 
nuts  are  sometimes  gathered  early  in  June,  when  they  are  tender, 
and  after  removing  the  clammy  pubescent  by  scalding  and  rub- 
bing with  a  coarse  cloth  make  excellent  pickles.  The  inner  bark 
is  white,  but  becomes  light  yellow  and  ultimately  dark  brown 
upon  exposure  to  the  air.  It  possesses  mild  cathartic  properties, 
that  from  the  root  being  especially  valued  as  a  safe  cathartic. 
The  acrid  leaves  have  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  Spanish  flies, 
Sugar  of  excellent  quality  has  been  made  from  the  sap,  and  a 
dye  for  coloring  cloth  a  yellow  or  orange  color  is  obtained  from 
the  green  husks  of  the  fruit  and  from  the  bark,  and  formed  the 
butternut  color  commonly  used  in  the  early  history  of  this  coun- 
try. 

Genus  HICORIA. 

Leaves  alternate,  odd-pinnate,  with  few  leaflets.  Flowers 
monoecious,  apetalous;  the  staminate  in  clustered  lateral  cat- 
kins, each  cluster  on  a  terminal  peduncle;  the  pistillate  two  to 
six  together  on  a  terminal  peduncle;  stigmas  two  to  four,  large. 
Fruit  a  smooth  or  angled  nut,  covered  with  a  four-valved  husk, 
which  generally  separates  at  maturity.  The  leaves  of  most,  if 
not  all,  the  hickories  are  aromatic  and  astringent,  and  the  bark 
is  astringent  and  bitter.  The  bark  has  been  successfully  used  in 
the  treatment  of  dyspepsia  and  intermittent  fevers  and  in  homeo- 
pathic practice.  The  Indians  used  an  oil  made  from  the  nuts. 


HICKORY.  243 

Hicoria    ovata.       (Carya    alba.}     Shagbark    Hickory. 

Shellbark  Hickory. 

Leaves  eight  to  fourteen  inches  long;  leaflets  five  (rarely 
seven),  obovate  to  oblong-lanceolate,  ciliate;  fruit  globose, 
depressed  at  the  apex;  nut  pale  or  nearly  white,  more  or  less 
flattened,  four-angled,  thin  or  thick  shelled,  covered  with  thick 
husk;  meat  highly  flavored.  Bark  of  old  trees  is  very  shaggy, 
separating  into  wide,  rough  strips,  and  often  falling  away  in 
large  pieces.  A  sturdy,  beautiful  tree,  often  seventy  to  ninety 
feet  high  in  forests;  in  the  open  forming  an  inversely  conical 
top,  with  pendulous  branches. 

Distribution. — From  Maine  and  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
river  westward  along  the  southern  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  to 
Central  Minnesota  and  Kansas,  south  to  Western  Florida, 
Northern  Alabama  and  Eastern  Texas.  In  Minnesota  common 
in  a  few  counties  in  the  extreme  southeastern  portion  of  the 
state. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  sown  in  autumn  or  stratified  over  win- 
ter in  moist  leaves  or  sand  and  sown  in  the  spring;  also,  by  root 
sprouts.  Grafted  only  with  much  difficulty. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  tough,  close 
grained  and  flexible,  not  durable  when  exposed  to  moisture.  It 
is  light  colored,  with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood.  Specific  grav- 
ity, 0.8372;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  52.17  pounds. 

Uses.— The  Shagbark  Hickory  is  often  very  ornamental,  and 
is  used  to  some  extent  in  park  planting.  It  is  also  planted  for 
the  nuts,  which  find  a  ready  sale.  These  vary  greatly  in  size, 
thickness  of  shell  and  in  quality,  and  none  but  the  best  should 
be  planted  for  fruit.  The  tree  is  of  exceedingly  slow  growth, 
and  is  not  of  sufficient  hardiness  to  warrant  planting  it  in  any  but 
a  few  very  favorable  locations  in  Southern  Minnesota.  The  wood 
is  largely  used  for  ax  and  tool  handles,  plane  blocks,  wood 
screws,  mallets,  skewers,  baskets,  fuel  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  carriages  and  wagons,  gymnasium 
apparatus,  cennecting  rods  for  pumping  machinery,  etc.  The 
second  growth  hickory  is  tougher,  and  on  this  account  most 
desirable  for  these  purposes.  Hickory  is  also  used  in  ship  and 
boat  building,  hoops  for  barrels,  tubs  and  pails,  and  oxbows  are 
made  from  the  sapwood. 


244 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  17.    Hicoria  minima.    Bitternut  Hickory. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate  flower,  en- 
larged. 3.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  4.  Fruiting 
branch,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Cross  section  of  nut,  one-half  natural 
size.  6.  Longitudinal  section  of  nut,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Winter 
branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


HICKORY.  245 

Hicoria  minima.     ( Carya  amara. )    Bitternut  Hickory. 

Swamp  Hickory. 

Leaves  six  to  ten  inches  long;  leaflets  five  to  nine,  sessile, 
lanceolate  to  oblong-lanceolate,  taper-pointed,  serrate;  buds 
orange  yellow  in  winter,  resembling  those  of  the  Butternut,  open- 
ing by  valves,  which  fall  away  early.  Fruit  globular;  shuck 
very  thin;  nut  yellowish,  thin-shelled,  bitter.  The  bark  does  not 
shell  off  as  in  Shagbark  Hickory.  A  slender  tree  of  graceful 
habit,  sometimes  eighty  feet  high,  but  within  our  range  much 
smaller.  It  is  a  more  rapid  grower  than  the  other  hickories. 

Distribution. — From  New  England,  Ontario  and  Minnesota 
south  to  Florida  and  Texas,  in  moist  woods  and  near  the  borders 
of  streams  and  swamps.  In  Minnesota  frequent  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  state,  extending  through  the  Big  Woods  north  to 
Mille  Lacs  county. 

Propagation. — The  same  as  for  Shagbark  Hickory. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  tough  and 
close  grained,  liable  to  check  badly  in  drying;  color  dark  brown, 
with  thick  light  brown  or  nearly  white  sapwood.  Specific  grav- 
ity, 0.7552;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  47.06  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Bitternut  Hickory  is  a  good  ornamental  tree,  and 
quite  hardy  in  proper  locations  in  Minnesota.  It  is  probably  the 
most  desirable  of  the  hickories,  either  for  ornamental  use  or  for 
hoop  poles  in  this  section.  The  wood  is  inferior  to  thatfof  the 
Shagbark  Hickory,  but  is  used  for  about  the  same  purposes.  It 
is  said  that  in  early  days  an  oil  pressed  from  the  nuts  was  used 
for  illuminating  purposes. 


246  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


SALICACEAE.    WILLOW  FAMILY. 

A  large  family  of  trees  and  shrubs,  mostly  inhabiting  cold 
climates.  Leaves  alternate,  simple,  undivided,  and  furnished 
with  stipules  which  are  scale-like  and  deciduous,  or  leaf-like  and 
persistent.  Flowers,  dioecious,  both  kinds  in  catkins,  one  under 
each  bract  or  scale  of  the  catkin,  without  calyx  or  corolla;  in 
some  cases  the  calyx  is  represented  by  a  gland-like  cup;  ovary 
one  or  two-celled.  Fruit  a  one  or  two-celled,  two-valved  pod, 
with  numerous  seeds  attached  to  a  parietal  or  basal  placenta, 
ripening  in  early  summer  and  furnished  with  long,  silky  down. 

Genus  SAI/IX. 

Leaves  generally  narrow,  long  and  pointed.  Flowers  appear 
before  or  with  the  leaves,  in  terminal  or  lateral,  cylindrical, 
imbricated,  generally  erect  catkins;  two  or  more  distinct  or 
united  stamens;  stigmas  two,  short.  Fruit  a  one-celled  two- 
valved  pod.  Trees  or  shrubs  with  smooth  round  branches,  usu- 
ally found  growing  in  moist  land.  A  large  and  valuable  genus 
of  over  160  species,  the  greater  number  belonging  to  Europe  and 
Asia.  About  sixty  species  belong  to  North  America.  A  dwarf 
willow  is  found  growing  the  farthest  north  of  any  shrub.  Only 
two  tree-like  species  are  indigenous  within  our  range,  but  there 
are  several  foreign  kinds  mentioned  here  that  are  of  much  value 
for  cultivation  in  this  climate. 

Propagation. — The  wijlows  increase  readily  from  cuttings,  and 
are  seldom  grown  in  any  other  way.  The  cuttings  grow  readily 
at  almost  any  season  of  the  year,  provided  they  are  put  in  moist 
soil.  Even  in  midsummer  cuttings  of  firm  wood  a  half  inch  or 
more  in  diameter  will  grow  readily  if  planted  in  moist  soil,  but 
the  best  time  to  make  cuttings  is  in  the  fall  or  spring,  when  wood 
of  any  age  or  size  will  root  if  properly  planted.  Some  of  the 
weeping  varieties  are  grown  by  top-working  in  upright  stocks. 

Uses. — The  bark  of  the  trees  of  all  species  of  Salix  with  bitter 
bark  yields  salicylic  acid,  which  is  now  used  medicinally  in  the 
treatment  of  typhoid  fever,  gout  and  rheumatism.  During  the 
Civil  War  ground  willow  bark  was  used  in  the  treatment  of 
fevers  in  some  of  the  Southern  hospitals  when  quinine  could  not 


OSIER  WILLOWS.  247 

be  obtained.  The  bark  of  some  species  is  used  for  tanning 
leather.  The  slender  tough  twigs  are  used  extensively  for  bas- 
ket making  and  tying.  They  are  often  cultivated  solely  for  this 
purpose.  The  wood  of  the  Willow  is  not  very  valuable,  but  it 
is  used  for  light  fuel,  for  charcoal  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder  and  artists'  charcoal,  and  that  of  some  kinds  for 
timber  in  a  limited  way,  as  hoops  for  kegs  and  barrels  and  for 
artificial  limbs.  Some  kinds  are  also  planted  largely  for  holding 
the  banks  of  streams  and  for  windbreaks.  For  ornamental  plant- 
ing some  kinds  are  used  that  are  very  pretty  in  flower  and  foliage, 
which  quality,  taken  in  connection  with  the  ease  with  which  they 
are  propagated,  their  hardiness  and  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
grow,  have  made  them  largely  used.  Although  most  of  the  wil- 
lows flourish  best  when  they  have  abundant  moisture  at  their 
roots,  many  of  them  will  stand  well  on  any  land  good  enough  for 
corn,  and  a  few  kinds,  such  as  the  White  Willow,  are  among  the 
hardiest  kind  we  have  for  prairie  planting. 

Osier  Willows  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  a  variety  of  wil- 
lows which  are  grown  for  their  twigs,  which  are  used  for  basket 
making.  The  plantations  made  for  this  purpose  are  termed  osier 
holts.  The  growing  of  osiers  has  not  been  carried  on  to  any 
great  extent  in  this  country,  but  they  are  generally  imported. 
At  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  near  a  few  other  large  cities  here,.it  has 
reached  a  considerable  degree  of  development.  A  large  amount 
of  these  osiers  are  imported  into  this  country  each  year,  and  an 
immense  amount  of  willow  basket  material  is  used.  The  price 
paid  for  the  rods,  when  of  a  proper  length  and  in  good  condition, 
is  about  fifteen  dollars  a  ton,  green.  The  yield  per  acre  around 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  about  four  tons  of  green  rods,  but  occa- 
sionally as  high  as  eight  tons  has  been  obtained.  Dried  peeled 
rods  are  worth  somewhere  about  sixty  dollars  per  ton.  In  order 
to  facilitate  peeling,  which  in  this  case  is  termed  stripping,  the 
rods  are  steamed  until  the  bark  comes  off  easily.  These  are  not 
as  white,  however,  as  those  which  are  sap-peeled  in  the  spring, 
but  the  latter  are  not  as  durable  as  steam-peeled  rods. 

The  best  soil  for  the  growing  of  basket  willows  is  a  deep, 
sandy  soil,  drained  yet  moist.  If  water  for  irrigation  can  be 
commanded,  so  much  the  better,  but  the  basket  willows  will 
prosper  on  even  rather  dry  soil  of  good  quality,  but  do  not  grow 


248  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

as  fast  as  on  moist  soil.  Avoid  locations  where  stagnant  water 
stands  in  summer.  Among  the  best  situations  is  along  the  riv- 
ers and  brooks  that  pass  through  a  level  country,  and  on  small 
islands  which  frequently  are  found  in  the  midst  of  streams,  or 
swales  or  hollows.  If  these  places  are  occasionally  quite  wet  in 
winter,  it  does  not  seem  to  injure  seriously  the  basket  willows. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  this  purpose  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  it  very  rich,  and,  if  necessary,  for  best  growth  it  should 
be  heavily  manured  with  stable  manure,  and  as  carefully  pre- 
pared as  if  for  a  crop  of  corn.  The  best  time  for  planting  is  in 
the  late  autumn,  or  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  best  cuttings 
are  those  about  twelve  inches  long.  Put  these  cuttings  in  so 
that  their  tops  are  even  with  the  ground,  but  do  not  cover  them 
with  earth.  Some  growers  prefer  to  set  the  cuttings  about 
four  inches  apart  in  rows  twenty  inches  apart  for  best  results. 
This  gives  a  thick,  close  growth,  which  sufficiently  shades  the 
soil  between  the  rows  that  weeds  cannot  grow  there.  If  the 
plants  should  prove  to  be  too  thick,  every  alternate  one  can  be 
grubbed  out  after  the  third  year.  This  method  will  require  about 
65,000  cuttings  to  the  acre.  Other  growers  prefer  to  set  twelve 
inches  apart  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  This  gives  a  chance  to 
work  between  the  rows  with  a  horse,  which  is  quite  an  advantage 
under  some  conditions.  This  method  requires  about  15,000  cut- 
tings per  acre. 

On  land  that  is  wet  late  in  autumn  the  willows  are  liable  to 
grow  too  long,  and  not  ripen  their  shoots,  which  is  an  important 
consideration  in  the  growing  of  basket  willows;  since,  if  the 
shoots  are  not  ripened  at  the  time  growth  ceases,  they  are  worth- 
less for  basket  purposes,  being  soft  and  brittle.  The  rods  should 
be  cut  the  first  year,  even  if  of  no  value,  for  if  the  cutting  is 
delayed  until  the  second  year,  the  plants  will  have  branched,  and 
will  produce  much  less  valuable  material.  The  rods  should  be 
cut  as  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible.  They  should 
then  be  tied  in  bundles  about  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and,  if  it 
is  intended  to  .sap-peel  them,  these  bundles  should  be  placed  in 
running  water,  standing  upright,  until  the  leaves  or  sprouts 
appear  in  the  spring,  when  they  should  be  ready  to  peel.  This 
method  of  peeling  is  termed  sap-peeling.  When  it  is  intended  to 
remove  the  bark  by  steaming  or  boiling,  the  bundles  may  be  set 
up  anywhere  until  dry,  when  they  may  be  stored  in  sacks  or  in 


OSIER  WILLOWS.  249 

covered  sheds  until  wanted.  Rods  thus  treated  will  be  of  a 
darker  color  than  those  peeled  in  the  spring  after  the  sap  has 
started,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  wood  is  stained  by  the  color- 
ing matter  in  the  bark,  which  is  dissolved  and  taken  up  by  the 
wood.  These  dark-colored  rods,  however,  make  the  most  valua- 
ble baskets.  Willows  should  never  be  cut  when  the  sap  is  flow- 
ing, as  the  material  is  poor,  being  too  soft  and  turning  black 
when  peeled.  Besides,  they  injure  the  plants  by  robbing  them 
of  their  yearly  supply  of  root  nourishment.  The  cutting  should 
always  be  done  carefully,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  split 
or  mutilate  the  stocks.  The  peeling  is  done  by  pulling  the  rods 
through  a  springy  wooden  fork,  shaped  like  a  clothespin,  but 
larger,  and  with  blunt  edges  inside.  This"  presses  against  the  rod 
and  loosens  the  bark  in  strands  without  injuring  the  wood.  The 
rod  is  afterwards  dried  in  the  open  air  and  put  up  in  bundles  of 
fifty  pounds  for  the  market. 

Peeled  rods  keep  much  better  than  those  left  with  the  bark 
on,  and  this  is  said  to  be  the  most  profitable  way  in  which  to 
market  the  product.  The  willow  is  generally  a  healthy  plant, 
and  rather  free  from  insect  enemies  under  ordinary  conditions; 
but  when  grown  in  large  groups  of  pure  willows,  it  is  occasionally 
attacked  by  rust  and  also  by  insects.  The  leaf-eating  insects  are 
easily  destroyed  by  Paris  green,  used  in  the  same  way  as  is  com- 
mon for  the  destruction  of  the  potato  bug. 

The  Osier  Willow,  which  has  here  proven  most  productive 
of  the  long,  slender  shoots  so  desirable  for  basket-making,  is  the 
Salix  purpurea,  and  at  the  University  Experiment  Station  this 
has  frequently  made  a  growth  of  six  feet  long  in  the  season. 
It  should  be  understood  by  anyone  who  undertakes  this  line  of 
work  that  long,  slender  rods  are  desirable,  and  that  one  rod  six 
feet  long  may  be  worth  as  much  as  several  that  are  not  over 
three  or  four  feet  long.  Almost  any  willow  may  be  used  for 
making  the  common,  coarse  baskets,  but  for  the  better  class  of 
willow  goods  the  special  osier  willows  should  be  grown.  The 
common  White  Willow  and  also  the  Golden  Willow  produce 
rods  of  fairly  good  quality. 

Wisconsin  Weeping  Willow. 

A  willow  known  among  horticulturists  as  the  Wisconsin 
Weeping  Willow  (botanical  name  not  known)  has  been  grown 


250 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  18.     Salix  nigra.     Black  Willow. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Scale  of  staminate 
catkin,  enlarged.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  enlarged.  5.  Longitudinal 
section  of  ovary,  enlarged.  6.  Fruiting  'branch,  one-half*  natural  size.  7. 
Summer  branch,  one-half  natural  size. 


WILLOW. 


251 


to  a  considerable  extent  here  and  is  our  best  large  Weeping  Wil- 
low. It  attains  large  size  in  favorable  locations,  but  is  occa- 
sionally killed  back  by  severe  winters. 


Salix  nigra.     Black  Willow. 


Figure  50.    Wisconsin  Weeping  Willow. 


Leaves  vary  greatly  in 
size  and  outline  on  differ- 
ent trees,  but  are  generally 
narrowly  lanceolate,  long 
pointed,  serrulate,  some- 
what pubescent  especially 
on  the  lower  surface;  when 
mature  two  and  one-half  to 
five  inches  long,  bright 
green  and  glabrous  above, 
somewhat  paler  and  glab- 
brous  beneath,  and  some- 
times pubescent  on  the 
underside  of  midribs.  Stip- 
ules persistent  or  soon  fall- 


ing away.  Catkins  appear  with  the  leaves;  stamens  three  to 
seven,  distinct.  Our  largest  native  willow,  forming  a  large  tree, 
with  dark  brown  or  almost  black  rough  flaky  bark. 

Distribution. — Along  streams  and  lakes,  New  Brunswick  to 
Eastern  Dakota,  south  to  Florida,  Texas  and  Arizona. 

Propagation. — By  cuttings,  but  seedlings  may  often  be  gath- 
ered. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  weak,  close  grained,  checks 
badly  in  drying;  light  reddish  brown,  with  nearly  white  sap- 
wood.  Specific  gravity,  0.4456;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  27.77 
pounds. 

Uses. — The  Black  Willow  is  seldom  used  for  ornamental  or 
timber  planting.  The  wood  is  used  for  fuel  and  the  bark  domes- 
tically in  the  treatment  of  fevers. 


Salix  amygdaloides.    Almondleaf  Willow. 

Willow. 


Peachleaf 


Leaves  lanceolate  or  ovate-lanceolate,  long-pointed,  three  to 
five  or  more  inches  long,  slightly  pubescent  when  young,  green 
above,  pale  and  glaucous  below  with  stout  yellow  or  orange-col- 


252 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  19.    Salix-  amygdaloides.    Almondleaf  Willow. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Staminate  flower 
with  scale,  enlarged.  4.  Pistillate  flower  with  scale,  enlarged.  5.  Fruiting 
branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6.  Summer  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7. 
Bud  and  leaf  scar.  { 


WILLOW.  253 

ored  midrib.  Stipules  often  one-half  inch  broad,  on  vigorous 
shoots,  but  scarcely  appearing  on  the  weaker  branches.  Catkins 
appear  with  the  leaves;  stamens  five  to  nine,  distinct.  A  small 
tree,  occasionally  seventy  feet  high. 

Distribution. — Along  lakes  and  streams.  Quebec  to  the  valley 
of  the  Upper  Saskatchewan  river  and  Oregon,  south  to  Ohio, 
Missouri  and  Texas.  Common  in  Minnesota. 

Propagation. — By  cuttings.  Seedlings  can  generally  be  gath- 
ered. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  weak,  close  grained,  light 
brown  with  thick  whitish  sapwood.  Specific  gravity,  0.4509; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  28.10  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Almondleaf  Willow  is  not  as  desirable  as  several 
'other  willows  for  cultivation,  but  in  suitable  locations,  makes  a 
very  pretty  tree.  The  wood  is  used  for  fuel. 

Salix  alba.    White  Willow. 

Leaves  lanceolate,  taper  pointed  and  tapering  to  the  petiole, 
serrate  with  thickened  teeth,  silky  on  both  sides  when,  young, 
less  so  and  pale  or  glaucous  beneath  when  mature;  stipules 
deciduous.  Flowers  appear  in  May,  with  the  leaves  at  the  ends 
of  leafy  lateral  shoots  of  the  season;  stamens  two.  Fruit 
matures  in  June.  Tree  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  eighty  feet, 
with  a  trunk  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  ascending 
branches. 

Distribution. — Native  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia,  but  was 
early  brought  to  this  country,  and  has  become  naturalized  from 
the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Potomac.  There  are  many 
varieties,  and  probably  many  hybrids  of  this  with  the  American 
and  European  species.  The  form  of  the  White  Willow  com- 
monly used  for  windbreaks  on  our  prairies  has  been  considered 
by  some  as  a  hybrid  between  S.  fragilis  and  S.  alba,  and  by  others 
as  but  a  variety  of  5.  alba.  The  pistillate  tree  is  most  commonly 
met  with  here. 

Propagation. — It  can  be  propagated  easily  from  cuttings  of 
large  or  small  size.  In  growing  this  tree  for  windbreaks  some 
planters  prefer  to  use  poles  instead  of  common  cuttings,  laying 
them  in  furrows  in  the  prepared  soil,  where  they  are  all  covered 


254 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  20.    Salix  alba.    White  Willow. 

i.  Flowering  branch  from  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2. 
Flowering  branch  from  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Scale  of 
staminate  catkin,  enlarged.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  front  view,  en- 
larged. 5.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  rear  view,  enlarged.  6.  Fruiting 
branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Leaf,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Winter 
branchlet,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  Seedling. 


WILLOW.  255 

except  at  intervals  of  about  two  feet,  at  which  places  they  sprout 
and  grow. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Soft;  light,  tough,  strong  and  very  flexi- 
ble. 

Uses. — The  White  Willow  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  trees 
to  use  for  windbreaks  on  our  prairies.  Wonderfully  hardy  even 
in  dry  locations.  It  sprouts  vigorously  from  the  stump  and  fur- 
nishes good  straight  poles  of  uniform  size,  which  if  cut  in  sum- 
mer and  the  bark  peeled  off  will  last  for  a  number  of  years 
exposed  to  the  weather.  When  thoroughly  dried  they  make 
fence  posts  that  will  last  about  six  years,  but  generally  are  not 
durable.  The  fuel  if  dried  under  cover  has  greater  value  for 
summer  use  than  is  generally  supposed.  Some  data  collected  by 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  seem  to. show  that  the  White 
Willow,  on  good  land,  may  yield  as  much  as  five  and  one-half 
cords  of  firewood  per  acre  per  year.  In  Europe  the  wood  is 
used  for  rafters  of  buildings,  for  the  lining  of  carts  used  in  haul- 
ing stone,  in  turnery,  for  baseball  and  cricket  bats,  and  for  any 
purpose  where  a  very  light,  strong,  tough  wood  is  needed.  The 
leaves  are  used  as  forage  for  cattle  and  the  bark  for  tanning 
leather,  for  which  purpose  it  is  considered  nearly  as  good  as 
oak  bark.  A  row  of  White  Willow  set  about  four  feet  apart 
with  barbed  wire  put  on  them  makes  a  very  permanent  and 
serviceable  fence.  Live  willow  posts  or  stakes  that  are  used  to 
support  barbed  wire  soon  root  and  become  permanent  trees  in 
moist  soil.  The  White  Willow  will  not  make  a  good  low  hedge, 
as  it  does  not  stand  very  close  pruning. 

Varieties. — The  White  Willow  has  given  rise  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  varieties,  among  the  best  of  which  are  the  following: 

Salix  alba  vittellina.     Common  Golden  Willow. 

A  pretty  tree  at  all  seasons,  but  particularly  so  in  winter  and 
early  spring,  on  account  of  its  bright  yellow  bark;  form  like  that 
of  the  species.  This  variety  has  been  largely  planted,  but  is 
now  generally  supplanted  by  the  next,  which  is  a  better  orna- 
mental tree.  This  has  become  naturalized  in  this  country,  though 
it  is  probable  that  only  the  pistillate  form  is  found  in  this  sec- 
tion. 


256 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Salix    alba   vittellina   (from   Russia.)    Russian  Golden 
Willow. 

A  very  rapid  growing,  round,  close-topped  tree,  with  glossy 
deep  green  foliage,  bright  golden  colored  bark  in  winter,  and 

bright  yellow,  conspicuous, 
fragrant,  staminate  catkins, 
appearing  with  the  leaves  in 

ri.i'1'- 


the  spring.  One  of  the  best 
quick-growing  trees  for  this 
section,  and  very  valuable  for 
giving  variety  to  lawn  and 
timber  plantings.  Under 
favorable  conditions  a  cutting 
of  this  has  been  known  to 
make  a  tree  ten  inches  through 
the  trunk  with  a  top  that 
spread  over  thirty  feet  in  eight 
years.  The  staminate  form  is 
perhaps  the  only  one  grown 
in  this  country. 


Figure  51.     Russian  Golden  Wil- 
low.    A  round-topped  tree. 


Salix  alba  britsensis. 

A  variety  of  the  White  Willow, 
with  attractive  reddish  twigs  in 
winter,  pyramidal  form  and  rapid 
growth.  Valuable  for  variety  in 
timber  plantings,  parks,  etc. 

Salix  alba  regalis.     (Salix 
regalts.)     Royal    Willow. 

A  distinct  form  of  the  White 
Willow  forming  a  small  tree  or 
shrub;  the  foliage  of  which  is 
covered  with  silky  down,  which 
gives  it  a  silvery  appearance.  A 
very  hardy  tree,  useful  for  vari- 
ety in  ornamental  planting. 


Figure  52     Salix  alba  britzensis. 
A  conical-shaped  tree. 


WILLOW. 


257 


Salix     peiltandra.        (Salix    laurifolia    of    horticulturists.) 
I/aurelleaf  Willow. 

Leaves  larger  than  those  of  any  other  of  our  cultivated  wil- 
lows, taper  pointed,  finely  serrate  with  large  stipules;  upper  sur- 
face of  leaf  dark  green  and  shining  as  if  var- 
nished. Leaves  are  very  thick,  and  so  hard 
that  the  saw-fly  larvae  are  seldom  found  feed- 
ing on  it.  A  vigorous  grower  when  young, 
making  a  small,  round,  open  topped  tree;  val- 
uable for  variety.  The  only  objection  to  the 
extensive  planting  of  this  tree  here  is  a  blight, 
which  is  occasionally  injurious  to  it.  On  this 
account  it  should  be  used  only  in  a  small  way. 
The  form  planted  here  bears  pistillate  flowers. 
Native  of  Europe.  Propagated  by  cuttings. 

Salix    lucida.      Glossyleaf    Willow. 

Shining  Willow. 

Leaves  three  to  five  inches  long  and  one 
to  one  and  one-half  inches  wide,  lanceolate, 
taper-pointed,  dark  green  and  glossy  on  the 
upper  and  paler  on  the  lower  surface  with 
broad  yellow  midribs.  Stipules  one-eighth  to 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  broad,  remaining  all 
summer.  Catkins  later  than  the  leaves;  sta- 
mens usually  five,  distinct.  Occasionally  a 
small  tree,  but  within  our  range  a  shrub. 

Distribution.— Newfoundland  to  Hudson  Bay,  westward  to  base 
of  Rocky  Mountains  and  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Eastern  Ne- 
braska. 

Propagation. — By  cuttings  and  by  seeds. 

Uses. — The  Glossyleaf  Willow  is  a  pretty  ornamental  shrub  on 
account  of  its  lustrous  green  leaves  and  showy  staminate  flowers. 
Much  resembles  the  Almondleaf  Willow. 

Salix  acutifolia. 

Leaves  lanceolate-acuminate,  dark  green  and  shining  above, 
pale  glaucous  below,  crenate,  those  on  strong  shoots  stipulate. 
Twigs  yellowish  green,  older  branches  covered  with  a  heavy  pur- 
plish bloom.    Catkins  thick,  stiff  and  very  silky,  appearing  before 
17 


Figure  53-  Leaf 
of  Laurel  leaf  Wil- 
low, one-half  nat- 
ural size. 


258 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  21.    Salix  lucida.     Glossyleaf  Willow. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Fruiting  branch, 
one-half  natural  size.  4.  Scale  of  staminate  catkin,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  ot 
pistillate  catkin,  enlarged.  6.  Mature  fruit,  enlarged.  7.  Summer  branch, 
one-half  natural  size. 


POPLAR.  259 

the  leaves.  A  very  hardy  tree  or  shrub  of  graceful  habit  attain- 
ing a  height  of  twenty  feet.  More  difficult  to  propagate  than 
most  willows,  and  occasionally  blights  severely. 

Salix   purpurea   pendula.     (S.  na^oleonis.}     Napoleon 
Willow. 

Leaves  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  long,  linear,  finely 
serrate,  green  and  shining  above,  dull  bluish  green  beneath; 
petioles  short.  Young  twigs  and  petioles  reddish.  A  spreading 
shrub,  but  when  top-worked  on  an  upright  stock  forms  a  very 


.  -s^ 
Figure   54.     Napoleon  Willow,  top-worked  on  White  Willow. 

pretty  tree,  with  spreading  pendulous  branches.  Hardy  at  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station.  Known  among  nurserymen  as 
New  American  Willow,  but  often  worked  on  too  tender  stocks. 

Genus  POPUI/US. 

Leaves  alternate,  broad,  more  or  less  heart  shaped  or  ovate. 
Flowers  dioecious.  Individual  trees  bearing  staminate  and  pis- 
tillate catkins,  and  also  catkins  having  the  two  kinds  of  flowers 
mixed  together  occasionally  occur.  Flowers  appear  before  the 
leaves  in  long,  usually  drooping,  lateral,  cylindrical  catkins,  the 
scales  of  which  are  furnished  with  a  fringed  margin;  the  calyx 
is  represented  by  an  oblique  cup-shaped  disk,  with  entire  mar- 
gin; stamens  usually  numerous;  ovary  short;  stigmas  long,  two- 
lobed;  fruit  described  under  family  Salicacea,  ripening  before  the 


260  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

full  development  of  the  leaves  in  May  or  June.  A  genus  of  about 
twenty  species  of  soft  wooded  trees,  mostly  natives  of  cold  cli- 
mates, one-half  of  which  are  found  in  North  America. 

Populus  tretnuloid.es.  Aspen.  American  Aspen.  Quak- 
ing Asp.  Poplar.  Popple. 

Leaves  ovate  or  obicular,  with  a  sharp,  short  apex,  small, 
smooth  on  both  sides;  petiole  long,  flattened.  Flowers  in  April 
before  the  leaves  in  hairy  catkins.  Fruit  a  small,  two-valved 
capsule;  seeds  very  small.  Bark  smooth,  greenish  white  except 
on  very  old  trees;  twigs  not  angular.  This  is  generally  a  small, 
short-lived  tree,  but  occasionally  it  grows  sixty  or  more  feet 
high.  The  penduloife  leaves  tremble  in  the  slightest  breeze;  the 
silver  gray  bark  is  attractive  and  the  autumn  color  of  the  leaves 
is  one  of  the  purest  golden  yellows  found  among  trees. 

Distribution. — From  Southern  Labrador  to  southern  shores  of 
Hudson  Bay,  to  the  Mackenzie  and  Yukon  rivers,  south  to 
Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  New  Mexico  and  Lower  California  and 
through  all  mountain  ranges  of  the  West.  One  of  the  most 
widely  distributed  trees  of  North  America.  In  Minnesota  it  is 
found  throughout  the  state,  and  is  very  common  on  cut-over  tim- 
ber lands,  where  it  is  generally  the  first  tree  to  take  possession 
of  the  land  after  the  pine  is  cut  off.  It  grows  most  luxuriantly 
along  the  borders  of  swamps  and  open  forest  glades.  The  seed 
is  carried  long  distances  by  the  wind. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  grow  freely;  but  the  seeds, 
however,  are  seldom  sown  in  nurseries,  as  the  limited  demand 
for  this  species  is  easily  supplied  by  the  seedlings  which  spring 
up  along  the  lake  shores  and  sand  bars. 

Properties  of  Wood— Light,  soft,  not  strong,  close  grained,  of 
cottony  fiber,  and  soon  decays  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  is  of 
a  light  brown  color,  with  thick,  nearly  white,  sapwood.  Specific 
gravity,  0.4032;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  25.13  pounds. 

Uses.— On  account  of  the  color  of  the  bark  and  the  autumn 
color  of  the  leaves  an  occasional  specimen  of  Aspen  can  be  used 
to  advantage  to  give  variety  to  our  tree  plantings.  Although  it 
grows  rapidly  when  young,  it  is  of  very  slow  growth  when  older. 
The  wood  is  used  for  paper  pulp,  and  occasionally  for  interior 
finishing  and  for  turnery.  It  makes  good  light  fuel  if  cured 
under  cover. 


POPLAR. 


261 


Plate  22.    Populus   tremuloides.    Aspen. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Scale  of  staminate 
catkin,  enlarged.  4.  Stamen,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  en- 
larged. 6.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistil.  7.  Mature  fruit,  natural  size.  8. 
Fruit,  showing  mode  of  dehiscence,  natural  size.  9.  Seed,  enlarged.  10. 
Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  enlarged,  n.  Embryo,  enlarged.  12.  Fruit- 
ing branch,  one-half  natural  size. 


262  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Populus  grandidenta.    I/argetooth  Aspen. 

Leaves  roundish-ovate,  with  coarse  unequal  teeth,  densely 
covered  with  silky  wool  beneath  when  young,  smooth  on  both 
sides  when  old;  petioles  flattened,  twigs  not  angled.  Flowers  in 
hairy  catkins  three  to  four  inches  long,  the  staminate  catkins 
longer  than  the  pistillate,  stamens  about  twelve;  seeds  very 
small,  dark  brown.  A  medium-sized  slender  tree,  with  greenish 
gray  bark  rarely  over  seventy-five  feet  high  and  two  feet  in 
diameter;  resembles  the  Aspen,  and  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  it,  but  unlike  the  common  Aspen  'it  rapidly  attains  consid- 
erable size  under  cultivation. 

Distribution.— From  Nova  Scotia  west  to  Northern  Minnesota 
and  North  Dakota,  south  to  North  Carolina,  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee. In  Minnesota  throughout  most  of  the  state  in  forests, 
usually  in  rich  moist  sandy  soil  near  swamps  and  streams. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  and  cuttings. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  and  close  grained  but  not 
strong;  light  brow.n  with  thin,  white  sapwood.  Specific  gravity, 
0.4632;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  28.87  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Largetooth  Aspen  can  sometimes  be  planted  in 
timber  belts  to  advantage.  It  makes  good  straight  poles  for 
various  farm  purposes  and  for  framing;  it  is  also  used  for  wood 
pulp,  and  occasionally  in  turnery  and  for  woodenware. 

Varieties— Populus  grandidenta  has  given  rise  to  several  varie- 
ties with  pendulous  branches,  which  when  grafted  on  straight 
stems  of  the  species  are  used  in  ornamental  planting  and  form 
the  best  weeping  poplars. 

Populus  balsamifera.     Balm  of  Gilead.     Tacamahac. 

Leaves  ovate,  lanceolate,  acute  or  taper  pointed,  smooth  on 
both  sides;  petioles  not  prominently  flattened;  buds  in  spring 
are  large  and  abundantly  covered  and  saturated  with  a  fragrant 
aromatic  varnish.  Flowers  appear  in  April  or  May;  the  stami- 
nate catkins  two  to  three  inches,  and  the  pistillate  four  to  six 
inches  in  length;  stamens  very  numerous,  purple.  Seeds  with  a 
large  cottony  float.  A  large,  upright  tree,  with  narrow  straight 
top,  and  nearly  smooth  gray  bark,  the  largest  of  the  sub-arctic 
trees. 


POPLAR. 


Plate  23.    Populus  balsamifera.     Balm  of  Gilead. 

i-  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  F.ow 
ering  branch  ot  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Fruiting  branch, 
one-half  natural  size.  4.  Scale  oi  staminate  catkin,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  ot 
pistillate  catkin,  enlarged.  6.  Scale  without  flower,  displayed,  enlarged.  7. 
Mature  fruit.  8.  Seed,  enlarged.  9.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  en- 
larged. 10.  Embryo,  enlarged,  u.  Winter  branch  showing  buds,  one-half 
natural  size. 


264    •  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Distribution. — Over  the  low  bottom  lands  and  swamp  borders 
of  the  greater  part  of  British  America  and  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  States.  In  Minnesota  found  throughout  the  northern 
part  of  the  state. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  and  cuttings. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  close  grained; 
light  brown,  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood.  Specific  gravity, 
0-3635;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  22.65  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Balm  of  Gilead  and  its  varieties  are  occasionally 
used  for  ornamental  planting,  but  while  they  are  of  rapid  growth 
and  occasionally  make  good  specimens,  their  open  habit  and  lia- 
bility to  die  in  the  top  make  them  undesirable  for  extensive  plant- 
ing. The  wood  is  excellent  for  paper  pulp.  The  buds  are  used 
in  liniments;  their  virtues  probably  being  analagous  to  those  of 
turpentine  and  the  balsams. 

Varieties. — 

Populus   balsamifera     candicans.     Hairy    Balm    of 
Gilead. 

This  form  has  a  wider  leaf,  longer  and  more  resinous  buds, 
more  spreading  branches,  heavier  wood,  and  is  a  more  orna- 
mental tree  than  the  species.  It  is  common  in  plantings  in  the 
Northeastern  States  and  Eastern  Canada. 

Populus  balsamifera  intermedia. 

A  European  Torm,  with  close,  upright  habit  and  very  thick, 
hard,  oval  leaves,  which  are  whitened  beneath.  It  is  known  to 
horticulturists  as  P.  laurifolia  and  P.  siberica  pyramidalis. 

Populus  balsamifera  viminalis. 

A  native  of  Northern  Europe.  The  tree  is  of  slender  growth, 
with  a  slightly  weeping  habit  when  old.  It  has  sharply  angled 
twigs  and  willow-like  leaves.  Known  to  horticulturists  as  P. 
lindleyana,  P.  salicifolia,  P.  crispa,  P.  dudleyi  and  P.  pyramidalis 
suavcolens. 

Populus  balsamifera  latifolia. 

A  variety  including  several  Asiatic  forms,  with  ovate  leaves, 
cylindrical  twigs  and  general  habit  of  the  Balsam  Poplar.  The 


POPLAR. 


265 


forms  of  this  are  known  to  horticulturists  as  P.  Noksti  and  P. 
Wobsky. 

Populus  angustifolia.     Narrowleaf  Cottonwood. 

Leaves  lanceolate  or  ovate-lanceolate,  narrow  at  base,  green 
on  both  sides;  branches  rather 
slender  with  smooth  bark.  Cat- 
kins densely  flowered,  one  and 
one-half  to  two  inches  long; 
stamens  twelve  to  twenty;  pistil- 
late catkins  lengthen  as  the  fruit 
grows,  and  when  the  seeds  are 
ripe  the  catkins  are  from  two  and 
one-half  to  four  inches  long.  Tree 
much  smaller  than  the  common 
Cottonwood,  it  seldom  being 
more  than  fifty  feet  high  and  fif- 
teen inches  in  diameter,  resem- 
bling a  willow  more  than  a  pop- 
lar. 

Distribution. — It  is  found  along 
streams  in    Montana,   Assiniboia, 

Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  and  Northwestern  Nebraska  to  Ari- 
zona.    It  is  the  common  Poplar  of  Southern  Montana,  Eastern 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Utah  and  Northern  Colorado. 
Propagation— -By  seeds  and  cuttings. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft  and  weak;  light  brown,  with 
thin,  nearly  white,  sapwood.  Specific  gravity,  0.3912;  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot,  24.38  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Narrowleaf  Cottonwood  is  used  as  a  shade  and 
street  tree  in  towns  of  Colorado  and  Utah,  for  which  purpose  it 
does  very  well  if  provided  with  water,  and  soon  forms  a  conical 
shapely  head.  It  is  hardy  in  Minnesota,  but  has  been  planted  here 
but  a  few  years. 

Populus  deltoides.     (P.  monilifera.)     Cottonwood.     Car- 
olina Poplar.     Yellow  Cottonwood. 

Leaves  large,  deltoid  or  broadly  ovate,  usually  abruptly  acu- 
minate, coarsely  crenate;  petioles  laterally  compressed.  Twigs 


Figure  55.  Leaves  of  Narrow 
leaf  Cottonwood,  one-third  nat 
ural  size. 


266  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

and  smaller  branches  thick,  smoother,  but  sharp  angled  or 
winged,  at  length  becoming  round.  When  the  leaves  unfold 
they  are  gummy  and  fragrant,  with  a  balsamic  odor,  and  covered 
more  or  less  with  white  soft  hairs;  at  maturity  they  are  thick, 
leathery  and  green  on  both  sides.  Catkins  pendulous;  the 
staminate  densely  flowered  and  from  three  to  four  inches  in 
length  and  a  half  inch  in  thickness;  the  pistillate  sparsely  flow- 
ered, thin  stemmed  and  often  a  foot  long  before  the  ripening  of 
the  seeds.  Stamens  sixty  or  more  to  each  flower.  Seed  oblong, 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  surrounded  by  a  tuft  of 
long  hairs,  which  aid  in  its  distribution.  Tree  sometimes  100 
feet  high,  with  trunk  occasionally  seven  or  eight  feet  in  diameter. 

Distribution. — From  Quebec  south  to  Florida  and  west  to  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  Alberta  to  New  Mexico 
along  banks  of  streams,  where  it  often  forms  extensive  groves. 
In  Minnesota  common  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  but  rare 
farther  north. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  and  by  cuttings.  Seedlings  can  be 
obtained  in  large  quantities  on  the  sand  bars  along  our  rivers  and 
on  shores  of  receding  lakes,  and  this  is  the  chief  source  of  sup- 
ply. The  opinion  is  common  that  seedlings  are  longer  lived  than 
plants  from  cuttings. 

Properties  of  Wood. — Light,  soft,  spongy  and  weak,  although 
close  grained;  dark  brown,  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood. 
*  Specific  gravity,  0.3889;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  24.24  pounds. 

Uses.— The  Cottonwood  has  been  largely  used  in  the  Western 
States  for  timber  and  fuel,  as  a  shade  tree  and  for  windbreaks. 
For  all  these  purposes  it  is  a  very  inferior  tree,  but  on  account 
of  its  abundance,  rapid  growth  and  hardiness  it  has  almost  neces- 
sarily been  largely  used  in  the  pioneer  work  of  settlement.  As 
a  timber  tree  it  is  inferior  on  account  of  its  timber  warping 
badly  in  drying  and  being  extremely  difficult  to  season.  As  a 
tree  for  shade  and  windbreaks  it  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  Green 
Ash,  White  Willow,  White  Elm  or  Boxelder;  on  the  dry  prairie 
it  is  subject  to  leaf  rust,  is  short-lived,  and  fails  to  make  a  shade 
dense  enough  to  keep  the  grass  out  of  groves.  The  pistillate 
form  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the  cottony  floats  with  which 
it  fills  the  air  when  shedding  its  seed.  It  has,  however,  done 
good  service  in  our  Western  States,  and  may  continue  to  be  of 


POPLAR. 


2G7 


Plate  24.    Populus  delioidcs.     Cottonwood. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Scale  of  staminate 
catkin,  enlarged.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  enlarged.  5.  Cross  section 
of  ovary,  enlarged.  6.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Mature 
fruit.  8.  Seed,  enlarged. 


2G8  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

service  in  first  plantings,  but  our  people  had  better  plant  longer- 
lived  and  more  desirable  trees  mixed  in  with  it  to  replace  it 
when  it  fails.  Occasionally,  however,  .the  Cottonwood  can  be  used 
to  advantage  where  a  quick  tree  effect  is  wanted,  for  where  it  has 
plenty  of  water  it  will  make  a  great  stately  tree  in  a  very  short 
time.  If  one  wishes  to  plant  Cottonwood  and  avoid  the  "cot- 
ton," which  is  so  objectionable,  cuttings  from  the  staminate  tree 
only  should  be  used,  as  this  form  produces  no  cotton.  The 
wood  of  the  Cottonwood  is  used  for  cheap  packing  cases,  trays 
and  bowls,  for  paper  pulp,  excelsior  and  for  fuel.  For  fuel  and 
lumber  the  wood  should  be  dried  under  cover,  as  it  decays  very 
quickly  when  exposed  to  moisture.  Some  figures  collected  at 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  show  that  on  good  land  Cot- 
tonwood  may  yield  as  much  as  seven  cords  per  acre  per  year 
increase. 

Yellow  Cottonwood.  In  some  sections  along  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Missouri  rivers  is  found  what  is  known  as  Yellow 
Cottonwood,  which  it  is  difficult  or  quite  impossible  to  distin- 
guish from  the  common  or  White  Cottonwood  by  any  of  its 
external  characters,  but  there  is. a  very  distinct  difference  in  the 
wood.  Some  good  authorities  have  thought  this  difference 
associated  with  the  sex  of  the  trees,  but  this  is  improbable,  as 
the  form  seems  localized. 

What  is  known  as  Yellow  Cottonwood  lumber  is  highly 
esteemed  for  turnery  and  various  purposes  for  which  Tulip 
Poplar  (Liriodendron  tulipifera)  is  used,  and  is  manufactured  in 
large  quantities.  It  has  also  been  used  for  the  siding  of  houses 
with  good  results.  The  characters  of  the  wood  of  each  are 
quite  clearly  given  in  a  letter  recently  received  from  the  "Three 
States  Lumber  Co."  of  Cairo,  111.,  from  which  the  following  is 
taken: 

"The  Cottonwood  belt  extends  along  the  Mississippi  river 
below  Cairo,  and  there  is  also  considerable  along  the  Missouri 
river.  The  Cottonwood  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  consists 
mostly  of  Yellow  Cottonwood.  This  generally  grows  on  low 
moist  land,  and  any  Cottonwood  that  is  found  growing  on  land 
that  is  subject  to  overflow  is  generally  the  soft  yellow  variety, 
known  as  Yellow  Cottonwood.  There  is  some  White  Cotton- 
wood  growing  in  the  southern  part  of  Illinois,  on  high,  dry 


POPLAR.  2GU 

ground.     It  is  not  possible  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other  by 
the  leaves,  as  in  such  comparison  there  is  no  difference. 

"Yellow  Cottonwood  grows  very  round  at  the  bottom,  and 
holds  to  size  much  better  than  White  Cottonwood.  It  generally 
has  a  thick  bark;  what  we  term  as  a  corrugated  bark. 

"White  Cottonwood  has  a  much  thinner  and  softer  bark, 
and  is  very  apt  to  have  a  heavy  spur  root  at  the  bottom.  We 
mean  by  that  it  is  liable  to  grow  up  somewhat  flat-sided  and 
ridged  near  the  bottom  of  the  trees.  This  is  somewhat  similar 
to  the  growth  of  oak. 

"Yellow  Cottonwood  will  saw  up  very  smooth,  is  so'ft  and  ten- 
der, and  must  be  handled  very  carefully  after  being  manufactured 
into  lumber  in  order  to  prevent  the  splitting  of  the  boards  or 
their  ends.  It  will  dress  out  through  a  planer  with  a  very 
smooth  surface,  and  will  break  off  square.  It  will  also  take  a 
very  nice  polish  after  being  surfaced. 

"White  Cottonwood  is  tough  and  stringy,  is  very  hard  on 
saws  in  manufacturing,  and  will  sometimes  bend  almost  double 
before  it  will  break, -and  after  breaking  the  ends  will  be  rough. 

"A  White  Cottonwood  board  put  through  a  planer  will  not 
dress  out  smooth  the  entire  surface,  but  there  will  be  more  or 
less  spots  that  are  fuzzy  and  rough,  which  is  a  serious  objec- 
tion to  the  consumer,  as  it  will  not  take  an  even  polish.  A 
White  Cottonwood  board  exposed  to  the  sun  will  also  warp 
and  twist  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  a  Yellow  Cottonwood 
board. 

"Yellow  Cottonwood  lumber  is  not  strictly  yellow,  consider- 
ing it  from  a  color  standpoint,  nor  is  it  strictly  white.  There 
is  a  tinge  in  the  lumber  which  impresses  you  as  different  from 
a  White  Cottonwood  board,  which  to  the  eye  is  very  distinct." 

Varieties. — 

Populus  deltoides  aurea.    (P.  Van  Gertii,  Bailey. ~]     Gold- 
enleaf  Cottonwood. 

This  variety  of  the  Cottonwood  is  very  desirable  -on  account 
of  the  bright  yellow  leaves  on  the  new  growth  in  summer. 
It  grows  freely,  and  in  Minnesota  has  proved  as  healthy  as  the 
species.  It  is  valuable  for  occasional  use  to  give  variety  to  wind- 
breaks, and  is  said  to  be  more  largely  planted  in  Europe  for 
park  decoration  than  any  other  American  tree. 


*70  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Populus  nigra.    Black  Poplar. 

Leaves  broadly  triangular,  sometimes  with  tapering  or 
rounded  base,  smaller,  less  deeply  toothed  and  shorter  in  propor- 
tion to  their  width  than  those  of  the  Cottonwood,  which  they 
resemble;  leaf  stock  flattened.  The  tree  has  generally  a  pyramidal 
habit  of  growth  and  dark  foliage.  It  is  less  lustrous  than  the 
Cottonwood,  and  grows  more  slowly.  This  is  probably  the  tree 
known  in  some  localities  as  Norway  Poplar  or  Norway  Cotton- 
wood.  What  has  been  sent  out  under  the  name  of  Populus 
bctulifolia  i%s  probably  a  form  of  this  species. 

Distribution. — Europe  and  Asia.  "It  must  now,  however, 
be  regarded  as  naturalized  in  this  country,  having  become 
thoroughly  established  in  many  localities." 

Propagation. — Almost  entirely  by  cuttings  in  this  country. 
Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  compact,  not  strong.    Specific 
gravity  of  air-dried  wood  0.45. 

j.  Uses. — The  Black  Poplar  and  its  several  varie- 

.*•£»  ties    are    used    for    shade    and    ornamental    trees 

v&  ,  where  a  quick  effect  is  needed.  The  wood  is 
'>J§£  used  for  cheap  packing  cases,  crates  and  for  light 
9£$$$?  ^ue*-  I*1  pharmacy  the  buds  are  used  for  preserv- 
ing fats. 

Varieties.— 

Populus  nigra  italica. 
I/ombardy  Poplar. 

*$$%  A     common     tree     with     upright     branches, 

making   a   very    straight   columnar    growth,    and 
,  .-J^Ur          on  this  account  very  conspicuous.     Leaves  small 
Fi  ure    6        ^^   &enerally   with   a   more   tapering   base   than 
Lombardy        the    species.      This    is    one    of    the    characteristic 
Poplar.          trees  of  Italy.     Its  common  name  is  derived  from 
Lombardy,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Italy.     The  tree  is  supposed 
to  be  a  native  of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor.    Its  peculiar  form  gives 
the  landscape  a  crude  look  where  it  is  much  used.     Single  speci- 
mens,   however,    may   be   occasionally   planted   to   advantage   to 
give  variety  to  shelter  belts.     It  is  hardy  in  moist  soil,  and  on 
our  average  prairie  soil  makes  a  good  growth  while  young,  but 
soon  becomes  ragged  in  the  top,  and  loses  some  of  its  branches 
and  occasionally  dies.     When  it  becomes  ragged  in  appearance 


POPLAR.  271 

it  should  be  cut  back,  as  it  will  then  often  renew  itself.  The 
tree  is  generally  shortlived  in  this  section.  It  does  not  afford 
shade  enough  for  a  forest  or  shade  tree,  and  does  not  make  a 
good  windbreak. 

Populus  alba.    White  Poplar.    Silverleaf. 

Leaves  roundish,  slightly  heart-shaped,  wavy  toothed  or 
lobed;  the  under  surface,  woolly  white,  especially  early  in  the 
season.  Branches  round,  without  angles;  buds  small.  A  large 
spreading  tree  of  rapid  growth,  very  much  disposed  to  sucker 
from  the  root.  It  has  given  rise  to  many  varieties,  that  differ 
from  the  species  in  form  of  tree  and  leaf  and  in  other  particulars. 

Distribution. — Europe  and  Asia  Minor;  naturalized  in  the 
United  States. 

Propagation. — By  cuttings  and  suckers. 

Properties  of  wood. — White,  soft,  light,  close  grained  and  easily 
worked.  Specific  gravity  of  air-dried  wood  0.48. 

Uses. — The  White  Poplar  is  seldom  planted,  as  it  is  not  so 
ornamental  as  some  of  the  varieties.  It  is  a  very  hardy  tree,  but 
is  occasionally  killed  back  in  very  trying  locations.  It  is  well 
adapted  to  planting  in  shelter  belts  where  its  suckering  habit  is 
not  a  drawback  to  its  presence.  The  wood  is  adapted  to  inside 
finishing  and  to  many  of  the  purposes  for  which  White  Pine  is 
used.  "It  is  probable  that  we  have  no  tree  with  valuable  wood 
that  will  reach  saw  log  size  on  our  prairie  soils  as  soon  as  this." 

Varieties. — 
Populus  alba  nivea,   (P.  argentea,  Koch.}  Snowy  Poplar. 

This  is  the  commonest  form  of  the  White  Poplar  in  this 
country.  It  is  known  by  the  snow-white  under  surface  of  its 
foilage  and  the  three  to  five-lobed  maple-like  leaf.  It  is  some- 
times wrongly  called  Silver  Maple,  from  the  resemblance  of  its 
foliage  to  that  of  a  maple.  The  foliage  is  so  very  obtrusive 
that  it  is  likely  to  be  used  too  frequently  in  lawn  plantings.  It 
may,  however,  be  used  sparingly  to  good  purpose  to  brighten 
up  groups  of  trees  and  shrubbery  which  present  too  gloomy 
an  aspect.  It  should  seldom,  if  ever,  be  used  as  a  street  tree  as 
masses  of  it  seem  to  be  out  of  harmony  with  every  good  thing  in 
the  landscape.  In  closely  settled  communities  the  down  on  the 
leaves  often  becomes  filled  with  soot  and  gives  the  tree  a  dirty 
appearance.  Hardy  everywhere,  and  easily  grown  from  cuttings. 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  25.    Populus  alba.    White  Poplar. 

i.  Flowering  branch  from  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2. 
Flowering  branch  from  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Scale  of 
staminate  catkin,  enlarged.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  enlarged.  5.  Sum- 
mer branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural 
size.  7.  Winter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Seedling. 


POPLAR.  273 


Populus  alba  canescens.    Silver  Poplar. 

This  differs  from  the  above  in  having  leaves  broad  or  nearly 
circular  in  general  outline,  notched  but  not  lobed,  but  like  it  in 
that  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  are  downy. 

Populus  alba  bolleana.     Bolle  Poplar. 

A  form  of  the  White  Poplar  of  the  same  narrow  upright 
habit  of  growth  as  the  Lombardy  Poplar. 
Leaves  somewhat  deeper  lobed  but  with  the 
same  cottony  covering.  It  differs  from  the 
common  White  Poplar  in  that  it  does  not 
sucker  from  the  root  and  is  more  difficult  to 
propagate  from  cuttings,  which  require  to  be 
calloused  before  planting.  It  is  striking  in 
aspect,  and  should  be  used  sparingly  in  orna- 
mental planting. 

Figure  57.  Leaf 

OneBthird   natwS  Populus     laurifolia.        (P.     Certinensis.} 

size.  Certinensis  Poplar. 

Leaves  on  the  old  wood  or  slow  growing  twigs  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  on  vigorous  growing  shoots.  The  former  are 
broadly  oval,  with  finely  serrate  margins  and  on  cylindrical 
twigs.  The  strong  shoots  are  deeply  angled  or  grooved,  and 
the  foliage  on  them  is  wavy  in  outline.  The  trees  are  some- 
times confounded  with  the  Cottonwood,  from  which  they  are 
very  distinct,  especially  in  the  leaves,  which  are  on  shorter  more 
rigid  petioles.  A  large  tree  of  rapid  growth. 

Distribution. — Introduced  from  Russia.  Probably  a  native  of 
northern  Europe  and  Siberia. 

Propagation. — Easily  grown  from  cuttings. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  easily  worked  and  reported 
as  being  valuable  for  many  of  the  purposes  for  which  pine  tim- 
ber is  commonly  used. 

Uses. — The  Certinensis  Poplar  has  been  tried  largely  in  this 
section,  and  has  proved  to  be  a  good,  quick-growing  tree  for 
prairie  planting.  In  some  localities,  however,  it  has  been  in- 
fested with  a  borer  which  has  occasionally  done  much  injury, 
18 


274  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

and  led  to  the  impression  that  it  is  not  so  hardy  as  the  Cotton- 
wood.  The  foliage  seems  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  leaf  fungus 
better  than  the  Cottonwood. 


BETULACEAE.    BIRCH  FAMILY, 

Genus  BETUI/A. 

Flowers  monoecious,  apetalous,  appearing  before  or  with  the 
leaves;  the  staminate  in  long  pendulous  catkins;  stamens  two; 
the  pistillate  in  erect  cylindrical  catkins;  ovary  naked,  two- 
celled.  Fruit  a  small  nut,  surrounded  by  a  wing  and  covered 
by  the  enlarged  scale  of  the  catkin,  ripening  in  autumn.  Leaves 
alternate,  simple,  dentate  or  serrate.  Trees  or  shrubs  with 
watery  juice.  A  large  genus  represented  by  many  species. 
The  bark  contains  a  resinous  balsamic  oil  sometimes  used  in 
tanning  leather.  In  parts  of  this  country  and  Canada  the  bark 
and  leaves  of  various  birches  are  esteemed  as  domestic  reme- 
dies for  diseases  of  the  skin,  for  rheumatism  and  gout.  An  oil 
obtained  from  the  inner  bark  by  distillation  is  also  used  ex- 
ternally for  the  same  purpose.  The  sweet  sap  of  many  species 
is  used  as  a  beverage,  and  is  sometimes  made  into  wine. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  when  gathered 
or  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in  the  spring  and  the  seed- 
lings given  some  shade  during  the  first  season.  The  varieties 
are  propagated  by  budding,  grafting  and  inarching  on  the  parent 
species. 

Betula  papyrifera.    Paper  Birch.     Canoe  Birch.     White 
Birch. 

Leaves  ovate  or  heart-shaped,  dark  green  on  the  upper  side. 
The  bark  is  reddish  on  the  twigs  under  four  or  five  years  old 
and  white  on  the  older  branches  and  trunk,  and  readily  sep- 
arated into  papery  sheets.  A  good  sized  tree,  frequently  sixty 
or  seventy  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  from  two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter,  or  perhaps  in  severe  locations  dwarfted  to  a  mere 
shrub. 

Distribution. — Throughout  Canada  to  Arctic  Ocean  ("Widest 
range  of  any  Canadian  tree"),  south  to  northern  Pennsylvania, 


BIRCH. 


275 


Plate  26.    Betula  papyrifera.     Paper  Birch. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Lateral  branch,  showing 
unfolding  leaves,  stipules  and  pistillate  catkins,  one-half  natural  size.  3. 
Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Scale  of  staminate  catkin,  rear 
view,  enlarged.  5.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  6.  Stamen,  enlarged.  7. 
Scale,  bearing  pistillate  flowers.  8.  Scale  of  fruiting  catkin.  9.  Nut,  en- 
larged. 10.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit. 


276  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

central  Michigan  and  northern  Nebraska  and  northwestern 
Washington.  In  Minnesota  generally  common  in  all  but  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  state. 

Propagation. — See  genus  Betula. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  strong,  hard,  tough  and  very  close 
grained,  but  not  durable.  It  is  light  brown  tinged  with  red, 
with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.5955; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  37.11  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Paper  Birch  is  a  tree  of  good  form  and  pretty 
habit.  It  is  especially  beautiful  in  the  spring  when  the  young 
leaves  are  unfolding,  and  in  the  winter  is  valuable  for  the  con- 
trast afforded  by  its  white  bark  with  other  plants.  It  lends 
variety  to  windbreaks  and  lawn  plantings.  Prefers  a  moist 
soil,  but  does  well  on  any  retentive  soil,  and  is  perfectly  hardy. 
The  wood  is  largely  used  in  the  making  of  spools  and  bobbins, 
clothes  pins,  bread  boards,  rolling  pins,  wood  screws,  and  shoe 
pegs,  in  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp  and  for  fuel.  It  is  one 
of  the  very  few  woods  that  burn  well  when  green.  It  decays 
quickly,  and  should  always  be  cured  under  cover.  The  Indians 
of  the  north  employ  it  for  their  sleds  and  paddles,  the  frames  of 
their  snow  shoes  and  handles  of  their  hatchets.  Birch  is  also 
used  for  flooring,  veneers,  moldings,  furniture.  The  knots  and 
gnarled  roots  are  turned  into  door  knobs  and  fancy  articles. 
The  tough,  resinous,  durable  bark  of  this  tree  is  impervious 
to  water,  and  readily  separated  into  layers.  It  is  used  by  the 
Indians  for  covering  their  canoes  and  houses,  and  for  making 
baskets,  drinking  cups,  etc. 

Betula  alba.    European  White  Birch. 

Leaves  small,  somewhat  triangular  and  tapering,  very  smooth 
and  glossy.  Stem  and  older  branches  chalky  white;  new 
growth  with  reddish  or  dark  brown  bark.  It  closely  resembles 
the  Paper  Birch. 

Distribution. — Native  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  be- 
coming naturalized  in  localities  in  the  United  States. 

Propagation. — See  genus  Betula. 

Properties  of  wood. — Fairly  heavy,  moderately  hard,  does  not 
split  well,  not  durable.  Specific  gravity,  air  dried,  0.64. 

Uses. — The  European  White  Birch  is  used  here  for  orna- 
mental plantings,  the  same  as  the  Paper  Birch,  though  it  is  a 


BIRCH. 


277 


smaller  tree.  In  Russia  the  bark  is  used  in  the  tanning  of 
leather,  for  its  preservative  qualities  and  delightful  odor.  Many 
parts  of  the  tree  are  used  in  pharmacy. 

Varieties. — There  is  a  large  number  of  cultivated  varieties  of 
the  European  White  Birch,  among  which  the  following  is  the 
most  highly  esteemed. 

Betula    alba   pendula    laciniata.      Ciitleaf  Weeping 
Birch. 

This  is  a  very  handsome  tree,  with  finely  divided  leaves  and 
a  drooping  habit  to  the  smaller  branches.  Desirable  for  lawn 

and  park  planting  in  retentive 
moist  soil,  but  is  very  short-lived 
in  dry  locations. 

Betula  nigra.     River  Birch. 

Red  Birch. 

Leaves  broadly  ovate,  acute  or 
obtuse  at  apex,  wedge-shaped  at 
base,  irregularly  serrate  or  some- 
what lobed;  when  mature  dark 
green  and  glabrous  above,  pale 
and  glabrous  or  tomentose  be- 
neath. Flowers  open  in  early 
spring;  staminate  catkins  mostly 
clustered  in  twos  or  threes,  two 
and  one-half  to  three  and  one- 
third  inches-  long;  pistillate  cat- 
kins soft  downy,  oblong,  cylindri- 
cal; catkins  in  fruit  one  to  one 
and  one-half  inches  long  and  about  one-half  inch  in  diameter; 
fruiting  bracts  tomentose,  about  equally  lobed;  not  broadly 
ovate  and  wider  than  its  wings,  pubescent  at  its  base;  bark  red- 
dish brown.  Sometimes  a  large  tree,  but  very  often  made  up 
of  spreading  stems,  forming  a  low,  bushy  tree. 

Distribution. — Massachusetts  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  Flor- 
ida and  Texas,  where  it  attains  its  largest  size.  Generally  found 
along  river  banks  and  in  rnoist  places. 

Propagation: — By  seeds,  which  ripen  in  June,  and  should  be 
sown  at  once,  making  plants  eight  to  ten  inches  high  by  autumn. 


Figure  58.  Leaf  of  Cut- 
leaf  Birch.  One-half  natural 
size. 


278  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  rather  hard,  strong  and  close 
grained.  It  is  light  brown,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood.  Spe- 
cific gravity  0.5762;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  35.91  pounds. 

Uses. — The  River  Birch  is  seldom  used  as  an  ornamental 
tree,  although  it  is  very  beautiful  and  does  well  in  any  good 
retentive  soil.  The  wood  is  used  for  furniture,  cabinet  making, 
wooden  shoes,  ox  yokes  and  in  turnery. 

Betula  lutea.    Yellow  Birch.     Gray  Birch. 

Leaves  ovate  or  oblong-ovate,  wedge  shaped  or  slightly  heart 
shaped  at  the  base.  Bark  of  trunk  yellowish  gray  and  somewhat 
silvery,  separating  into  thin  layers  and  hanging  loosely  coiled 
up  in  rolls,  giving  old  trunks  a  very  ragged  appearance.  Fruit- 
ing catkins  short,  oblong.  The  inner  bark,  twigs  and  leaves 
spicy,  aromatic,  similar  to  wintergreen,  but  much  less  so  than 
B.  lenta.  A  large  and  very  valuable  timber  tree. 

Distribution. — From  Newfoundland  to  the  valley  of  the  Rainy 
river,  and  south  to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  In  Minne- 
sota common  in  woods  in  north  half  of  the  state  and  rare  in  the 
western  and  southwestern  portion. 

Propagation. — See  genus  Betula. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  very  strong,  hard  and  close 
grained,  with  a  satiny  surface  that  takes  a  fine  polish;  it  is  light 
brown  tinged  with  red,  with  thin  white  sapwood.  Specific  grav- 
ity 0.6553;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  40.84  pounds. 

Uses. — The  wood  of  the  Yellow  Birch  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able of  our  northern  woods,  and  is  sometimes  termed  American 
Mahogany.  It  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  furni- 
ture, the  hubs  of  wheels,  and  for  small  wooden  articles  such  as 
clothes  pins,  pill  boxes,  shoe  pegs,  tool  handles,  tripods,  and 
also  for  keels  for  ships.  As  fuel  it  is  much  superior  to  Paper 
Birch.  The  bark  is  used  to  some  extent  for  tanning  purposes. 
The  volatile  oil  used  for  imparting  the  flavor  of  Birch  to  can- 
dies, soda  water,  etc.,  is  derived  to  some  extent  from  this  species 
though  mostly  from  the  Sweet  Birch  (B.  lenta.)  It  requires  a 
cold,  moist  soil  to  develop  its  best  form,  and  suffers  severely 
from  drouth.  On  this  account  it  is  not  desirable  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  or  for  prairie  planting. 


BIRCH. 


Plate  27.    Betula  lutca.    Yellow  Birch. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate  flower,  en- 
larged. 3.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  4.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  nat- 
ural size.  5.  Nut,  enlarged.  6.  Scale  of  iruiting  catkin,  enlarged.  7.  Wm- 
ver  branch,  showing  staminate  catkin,  one-half  natural  size. 


280  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Genus  AI,NUS. 

A  genus  comprising  five  species  in  the  Northern  States,  two 
of  which  are  in  Minnesota.  Flowers  monoecious,  both  kinds 
in  catkins  pendulous  when  expanded.  Apetalons,  calyx  usually 
four-parted.  Fruit  a  winged  or  wingless  minute  flat  nut.  Flow- 
ers appearing  before,  with  or  after  the  leaves.  The  species  here 
referred  to  is  one  of  the  smaller  and  least  valuable  of  the  genus. 
The  Alnus  glutinosa  of  Europe  makes  a  large  timber  tree,  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  seventy  feet,  and  Alnus  oregona  of  the  Pa- 
cific slope  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  eighty  feet  and  a  diam- 
eter of  three  feet.  The  specius  of  Alnus  produce  soft,  straight- 
grained  wood  which  soon  decays,  but  is  of  great  durability 
when  placed  underground  or  in  water.  In  some  places  it  is 
largely  grown  for  making  charcoal,  which  is  used  for  inferior 
kinds  of  gunpowder.  Bowls  and  other  domestic  utensils  are 
also  made  of  its  wood.  The  bark  and  cones  are  astringent, 
and  are  used  in  tanning  leather  and  in  medicine. 

Alnus  incana.    Speckled  or  Hoary  Alder. 

Leaves  oval  or  ovate,  finely  dentate,  dark  green  above,  pale 
or  glaucous,  with  some  pubescens  beneath,  veins  prominent  on 
lower  surface.  Catkins  appearing  much  before  the  leaves; 
staminate  catkins  conspicuous  in  autumn  and  winter,  one  and 
one-half  to  three  inches  when  unfolded;  pistillate  catkins  about 
one-half  inch  long  when  expanded,  but  are  protected  in  buds 
during  winter.  The  fruit  is  a  small  cone,  and  opens  in  autumn 
and  early  winter,  and  generally  remains  on  the  tree  until  spring. 
The  seed  is  flat,  roundish,  with  a  hard  margin.  A  shrub  or 
small  tree  eight  to  twenty-five  feet  high. 

Distribution. — Newfoundland  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  throughout  Canada,  south  to  Nebraska  and  Pennsylvania. 
Also  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Generally  found  in  moist  places. 

Propagation. — By  seeds. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  brittle,  not  strong. 

Uses. — Seldom  used  in  this  country  for  any  purpose,  but  the 
wood  is  undoubtedly  of  value  for  charcoal  for  the  manufacture 
of  inferior  kinds  of  gunpowder.  As  a  shrub  for  use  in  land- 
scape gardening  in  wet  places  it  is  of  some  value. 


ALDER. 


281 


5    Jg-*.^       f  ^W     3 

Plate  28.    Alnus  incana.     Speckled  or  Hoary  Alder. 

i.  A  fruiting  mature  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  A  flowering 
branch,  one-hall  natural  size.  3.  Pistillate  flower  and  scale,  front  view, 
enlarged.  4.  A  staminate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Scale  of  a  staminate  catkin, 
rear  view,  enlarged.  6.  A  nut.  7.  Scale  of  a  cone. 


282  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Genus  OSTRYA. 

Flowers  monoecious,  apetalous;  the  staminate  naked  in  long 
pendulous  catkins;  the  pistillate  in  erect  loose  catkins;  ovary 
two-celled,  inferior,  surrounded  by  small  deciduous  bracts  and 
each  inclosed  in  a  sac-like  involucre  which  grows  and  forms  a 
sort  of  cluster,  like  that  of  the  common  hop.  Leaves  alternate. 
Only  one  species  comes  within  our  range. 

Ostrya  virginiana.     Hornbeam.     Ironwood.     Hop  Horn- 
beam. 

Leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  taper-pointed,  very  sharply  and 
doubly  serrate,  green  above  and  downy  beneath.  Flowers 
minute,  appearing  with  the  leaves.  Seed  in  short  imbricated 
catkin-like  clusters,  ripe  in  August  but  hanging  on  into  late 
autumn;  nut  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  long.  Bark 
on  old  trees  dark  brown  and  furrowed,  not  smooth  as  in  Car- 
pinus.  A  handsome  tree,  generally  small,  but  occasionally  a 
foot  or  more  in  diameter. 

Distribution. — From  Cape  Breton  to  northern  Minnesota  and 
Black  Hills  of  Dakota  and  south  to  northern  Florida  and  east- 
ern Texas.  In  Minnesota  common  throughout  the  timbered 
portions  of  the  state  except  close  to  the  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 
.  Propagation. — Generally  grown  from  seeds,  but  may  be  grown 
from  layers  or  grafts. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  very  strong,  hard  and  tough,  ex- 
ceedingly close  grained,  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil  and 
susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  It  is  light  brown  tinged  with  red, 
or  ofter  nearly  white  with  thick  pale  sapwood.  Specific  gravity 
0.8284;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  51.62  pounds.  /- 

Uses. — The  Hornbeam  is  a  very  beautiful,  hardy  tree,  and  is 
occasionally  used  for  ornamental  purposes,  for  umbrella  sticks 
and  canes,  but  on  account  of  its  rather  slow  growth  it  is  not 
generally  desirable  for  this  purpose.  The  wood  is  used  for 
fence  posts,  levers,  mallets,  handles  of  tools,  and  medicinally  in 
homeopathic  practice. 


HORNBEAM. 


283 


Plate  29.     Ostrya  virginiana.     Hornbeam. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Scale  of  staminate  cat- 
kin, enlarged.  3.  Stamen,  enlarged.  4.  Diagram  of  pistillate  inflorescence. 
5.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  enlarged.  6.  Pistillate  flower  enclosed  in  bract 
and  bractlets,  enlarged.  7.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Lon- 
gitudinal section  ot  fruiting  involucre,  showing  nut,  one-half  natural  size. 
9.  Longitudinal  section  ot  nut,  natural  size. 


284  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Genus   CARPINUS. 

Tall,  slender  trees  or  small  shrubs.  About  twelve  species  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  only  one  of  which  is  indigenous  to 
North  America. 

Carpinus    caroliniana.      Blue    Beech.      Water    Beech. 
Hornbeam. 

Leaves  ovate,  oblong,  sharply  serrate,  pale  blue-green  on 
upper  surface  and  light  yellow-green  on  the  lower,  smooth  and 
thin,  two  and  one-half  to  four  inches  long,  resembling  those 
of  the  common  Beech.  Flowers  monoecious,  appearing  with 
the  leaves;  the  staminate  in  rather  dense  catkins  and  the  pistil- 
late in  small  slender  loose  catkins  with  a  three-lobed  bracelet 
to  each  seed.  Fruit  in  loose  clusters  at  the  ends  of  the  new 
growth,  with  large  three-lobed  bracts  to  the  involucre,  ripening 
late  in  the  autumn.  The  nut  is  one-sixth  to  one-third  of  an 
inch  long.  Shrubs  or  trees  twenty  or  more  feet  high,  with 
smooth,  grayish  bark  and  stems  often  deeply  furrowed. 

Distribution. — From  southwestern  Quebec  westward  to  north- 
ern Minnesota  and  eastern  Nebraska  and  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas.  Also  found  in  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
In  Minnesota  common  throughout  the  south  half  of  the  state, 
along  streams  and  around  lakes. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  grow  irregularly.  The  varie- 
ties may  be  grafted  or  budded  on  seedling  stocks. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  very  strong,  hard  and  close 
grained;  light  brown,  with  thick,  nearly  white  sapwood.  Spe- 
cific gravity  0.7286;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  45.41  pounds. 

Uses. — The  graceful  habit,  dark  blue-green  foliage  and  beauti- 
ful autumn  tints  of  the  Blue  Beech  make  it  a  desirable  tree  for 
parks  and  lawns  on  good  soil  in  somewhat  sheltered  situations. 
The  wood  is  so  very  tough  that  it  was  used  by  the  early  settlers 
in  the  northern  states  for  brooms,  ox-gads,  withes,  etc.  The 
toughest  wood  of  our  northern  forests. 


BLUE  BEECH. 


285 


Plate  30.     Carpinus  caroiliana.     Blue   Beech. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Scale  of  staminate  cat- 
kin, enlarged.  3.  Stamen,  enlarged.  4.  Scale  of  pistillate  catkin,  enlarged. 
5.  Pistillate  flower  with  bract  and  bractlets,  enlarged.  6.  Fruiting  branch, 
one-half  natural  size.  7.  Nut  with  involucre,  one-half  natural  size.  8. 
Nut,  enlarged.  9.  Longitudinal  section  of  nut,  enlarged.  10.  Winter 
branch,  one-half  natural  size.  n.  Staminate  catkin  in  winter,  enlarged. 


286  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


FAGACEAE.    OAK  FAMILY. 

Genus  CASTAN^A. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  watery  juice  and  serrate  straight  veined 
leaves.  Flowers  monoecious,  strong  smelling,  in  axillary  cat- 
kins near  the  ends  of  the  branches,  appearing  after  the  leaves. 
The  staminate  flowers  in  erect  or  spreading  yellowish  cylindrical 
catkins;  calyx  mostly  six-parted;  stamens  numerous,  some- 
times with  abortive  ovary;  filaments  slender.  t  The  fertile 
flowers  usually  two  to  five  in  an  ovoid  scaly  prickly  involucre 
at  the  base  of  the  androgynous  catkins;  calyx  with  a  six-lobed 
border  crowning  the  mostly  six-celled  ovary  and  usually  with 
four  to  twelve  abortive  stamens;  ovules  two  in  each  cavity, 
but  only  one  to  each  ovary  usually  maturing;  styles  corre- 
sponding in  number  with  the  cavities  in  the  ovary,  slender, 
exserted;  stigmas  small.  Involucre  of  fertile  flowers  enlarging 
and  becoming  globose,  mostly  four-valved;  in  fruit  a  thick, 
very  prickly  bur  inclosing  from  one  to  three  ovoid  nuts. 
Cotyledons  very  thick,  cohering  anil  remaining  underground  in 
germination. 

Castanea  dentata.     Chestnut. 

Leaves  oblong  lanceolate,  pointed,  acute  at  base,  serrate  with 
coarse  pointed  teeth;  when  mature  smooth  and  green  on  both 
sides.  Fruit  sweet  and  edible,  ripening  in  autumn.  A  large 
forest  tree  with  gray  bark. 

Distribution.' — Maine  and  Ontario  to  Delaware,  Michigan, 
Tennessee  and  Mississippi. 

Propagation. — Most  commonly  by  seed,  which  should  be  sown 
in  autumn  or  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in  the  spring. 
The  seed  is  very  difficult  to  preserve  in  good  condition  for 
germination  unless  carefully  stratified  out  of  doors.  When 
dried  it  soon  loses  its  vitality  and  when  stratified  in  the  cellar 
is  very  liable  to  mould.  The  foreign  sorts,  of  which  there  are 
a  number  in  cultivation,  are  mostly  propagated  by  grafting  on 
the  species. 

Properties  of  ivood. — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  coarse  grained, 
liable  to  check  and  warp  in  drying,  easily  split,  very  durable  in 


CHESTNUT. 


287 


Plate   31.     Castanca   dentaia.     Chestnut. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate  flower,  en- 
larged. 3.  Diagram  of  pistillate  flower  cluster.  4.  Pistillate  flower,  en- 
larged. 5.  Longitudinal  section  of  involucre  ot  pistillate  flowers.  6.  Por- 
tion of  iruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of 
fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Involucral  spine.  9.  End  of  young  branch- 
let. 


288  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

contact  with  the  soil,  reddish  brown,  with  thin,  light  colored 
sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.4504;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  28.07 
pounds. 

Uses.— Within  and  near  its  range  the  Chestnut  is  an  im- 
portant and  very  fast-growing  timber  tree  that  readily  renews 
itself  from  sprouts  from  the  roots.  As  an  ornamental  tree  it 
is  highly  esteemed  wherever  it  is  hardy.  In  this  section  it  is 
not  sufficiently  hardy  to  warrant  any  extensive  planting  of  it, 
but  has  held  on  well  for  twenty  years  in  Houston  county,  where 
are  found  thrifty  trees  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  forty  feet 
high  at  the  home  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Harris.  In  the  forest  plantation 
at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  the  young  trees  are  doing 
very  well. 

The  wood  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  furniture, 
school  globes  and  object  forms,  tool  handles,  kegs,  for  interior 
finishing  of  houses,  for  railway  ties,  fence  posts  and  rails.  Its 
durability  is  due  to  the  large  amount  of  tannic  acid  which  it 
contains.  An  extract  of  the  wood  is  largely  used  in  tanning. 

Genus  QUERCUS. 

A  very  large  genus  of  about  200  species,  which  are  not 
always  clearly  defined.  The  four  here  described  are  nearly  dis- 
tinct, but  there  are  great  variations  in  the  species,  and  many 
undoubted  hybrids.  Flowers  greenish  or  yellowish,  monoeci- 
ous; the  staminate  in  slender  naked  catkins,  ea.ch  flower  con- 
sisting of  a  four  to  seven-parted  or  lobed  calyx  and  four  to 
twelve  stamens;  the  pistillate  flowers  scattered  or  somewhat 
clustered,  each  consisting  of  a  nearly  three-celled,  six-ovuled, 
inferior  ovary  with  a  three-lobed  stigma  and  inclosed  by  a 
scaly  bud-like  involucre,  which  becomes  the  hardened  cup 
(cupule)  around  the  base  of  the  fruit,  which  is  a  rounded  one- 
celled  nut  or  acorn.  Cotyledons  remain  underground  in  germ- 
ination. All  our  species  flower  in  the  spring  and  shed  their 
acorns  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  or  following  year.  This 
genus  is  readily  divided  into  the  White  Oak  and  the  Black 
Oak  classes. 

The  White  Oak  class  is  characterized  by  leaves  with  rounded 
lobes,  teeth  that  are  never  bristle  pointed;  edible  acorns  ma- 
turing the  first  year,  inner  surface  of  shell  glabrous;  wood 
hard,  close  grained,  durable;  tree  with  deep  permanent  tap  root. 


OAK.  289 

The  Black  Oak  class  is  characterized  by  leaves  having  acute 
lobes  and  bristle-pointed  teeth;  acorns  bitter,  maturing  the 
second  year,  inner  surface  of  shell  of  acorn  woolly;  wood  por- 
ous and  brittle;  roots  spreading,  seldom  having  clearly  defined 
tap  roots  except  when  young. 

Oak  bark  is  used  for  tanning  leather.  The  cork  of  com- 
merce is  the  older  bark  of  the  Quercus  suber  of  southern  Europe. 
Galls  caused  by  insects  puncturing  the  young  and  tender  shoots 
are  produced  on  the  branches  of  most  oak  trees,  and  are  im- 
ported in  large  quantities  from  Asia  Minor,  China  and  else- 
where to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  inks  and  dyes.  The 
bark  of  most  species  is  tonic  and  astringent,  and  as  a  decoction 
is  sometimes  employed  as  an  external  remedy. 

Oak  is  in  general  use  for  ship  and  car  building,  general  con- 
struction, canoes,  carriages  and  wagons,  furniture  and  finish- 
ing, school  apparatus,  billiard  tables,  cooperage,  gunstocks, 
drawing  instruments,  pumps,  cheese  boxes,  basket  work,  um- 
brella sticks  and  canes. 

Propagation. — All  the  species  grow  readily  from  seeds  which 
have  been  kept  properly,  but  if  allowed  to  get  dry  they  are 
liable  to  lose  their  vitality.  The  seedlings  have  tap  roots  often 
three  to  four  feet  long  when  the  top  is  not  more  than  a  foot 
high.  On  this  account  the  trees  are  often  very  difficult  and  un- 
certain to  transplant,  but  if  the  tap  roots  are  cut  off  a  foot  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground  when  the  trees  are  one  year  old  they 
form  side  roots  and  then  may  be  moved  with  a  reasonable 
degree  of  certainty  within  the  next  few  years  before  they  have 
formed  new  tap  roots. 

Quercus  alba.    White  Oak. 

Leaves  short  petioled,  oblong  or  obovate  in  outline,  obliquely 
cut  into  three  to  nine  oblong  or  linear  and  obtuse  mostly  entire 
lobes,  smooth  excepting  when  young,  pale  or  glaucous  under- 
neath, bright  green  above,  turning  to  a  soft  wine  color  in 
autumn.  Fruit  an  edible  acorn  maturing  the  first  year,  hence 
borne  on  the  shoot  of  the  season,  three-fourths  to  one  inch 
long,  oblong,  often  peduncled,  not  more  than  one-third  covered 
by  the  hemispherical  saucer-shaped  naked  cup  which  is  rough 
or  tubercled  at  maturity.  A  noble  and  picturesque  tree  some- 
times attaining  a  height  of  100  feet  with  a  trunk  six  feet  in  di- 
ameter, but  much  smaller  within  our  range.  Its  bark  is  rough, 
19 


290 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate   32.     Querciis   alba.     White    Oak. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Portion  of  a  staminate 
catkin,  enlarged.  3.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  4.  Cluster  of  pistillate 
flowers,  enlarged.  5.  Cross  section  of  ovary,  enlarged.  6.  Fruiting  branch, 
one-half  natural  size.  7.  Cup,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  acorn,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  A  germinated  acorn,  one-half  natur- 
al size. 


OAK.  291 

with  longitudinal  fissures  and  of  a  whitish  gray  color,  whence 
its  name.  It  is  also  conspicuous  from  its  holding  many  of  its 
dead  withered  leaves  until  nearly  spring,  and  in  this  respect  it 
differs  from  the  Bur  Oak,  to  which  it  is. closely  allied  but  which 
sheds  all  its  leaves  in  autumn. 

Distribution. — From  southern  Maine  westward  through  On- 
tario to  southern  and  central  Minnesota  and  eastern  Kansas, 
south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  In  Minnesota  frequent  in  che 
southeastern  and  central  parts  of  the  state. 

Propagation. — The  acorns  of  the  White  Oak  naturally  start 
into  growth  in  the  first  of  autumn,  and  often  form  roots  several 
inches  long  by  the  time  the  ground  freezes.  In  consequence  of 
this  there  is  but  a  short  time  in  which  to  sow  them,  and  this 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  they  can  be  gathered  in  autumn  or 
if  planted  later  great  pains  must  be  taken  not  to  break  the 
radicle  which  will  probably  have  pushed  out.  The  seeds  require 
only  ordinary  care  to  secure  a  good  stand  if  properly  managed. 

Properties  of  wood. — Strong,  very  heavy,  hard,  tough,  close 
grained,  durable  in  contact  with  soil  although  liable  to  check 
unless  carefully  seasoned;  color  light  brown  with  thin  light 
brown  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.747;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
46.35  pounds. 

Uses. — The  White  Oak  is  highly  esteemed  as  an  ornamental 
tree  on  account  of  its  sturdiness,  longevity  and  magnificent 
spreading  form,  although  it  is  seldom  planted  on  account  of 
its  slow  growth;  one  of  our  hardiest  trees,  although  it  will  not 
endure  as  much  drouth  as  the  Bur  Oak  or  White  Elm.  The 
wood  is  of  great  value  on  account  of  its  adaptability  to  many 
purposes  where  a  tough,  strong,  close  grained  wood  is  needed. 
It  is  largely  used  in  ship  building,  in  construction,  in  cooperT 
age,  for  casks,  barrels,  kegs,  tubs,  pails  and  measures  (large 
quantities  being  exported  to  Europe  in  the  form  of  staves),  in 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  carriages  and 
baskets,  for  flooring  and  the  interior  finishing  of  houses,  in  furni- 
ture and  cabinet  making,  tool  handles  and  for  railway  ties,  fence 
posts  and  fuel. 

Quercus  platanoides.    Swamp  White  Oak. 

Leaves  obovate  or  oblong-obovate,  coarsely  sinuately  toothed 
or  sometimes  lobed,  dark  green  above  and  usually  densely 
white-tomehtose  beneath,  except  on  foliage  that  is  much  shaded. 


292 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  33.     Quercus  platanoides.     Swamp   White   Oak. 

i.  Staminate  inflorescence,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Pistillate  inflores- 
cence and  young  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  A  leaf  grown  in  the 
shade.  4.  A  fruiting  branch,  reduced. 


OAK.  293 

Fruit  usually  in  pairs  and  matures  the  first  year;  borne  on 
slender  erect  peduncles  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one- 
half  inches  long.  The  rather  deep  cup- incloses  about  one-third 
of  the  acorn,  which  is  oblong-oval  in  form  and  about  one  inch 
long.  Bark,  gray,  flaky,  especially  on  young  trees  or  branches. 
A  large  tree,  attaining  commonly  a  height  of  about  seventy 
feet  in  this  section,  with  a  diameter  of  three  or  four  feet.  Easily 
recognized  by  the  flaky  bark  of  the  young  growth  and  the  small 
dwarfed,  twisted  and  generally  pendulous  branches,  which  often 
occur  on  the  larger  limbs  and  trunk. 

Distribution. — From  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  Missouri,  and 
from  Ontario  south  to  northern  Kentucky  and  Arkansas,  where 
it  is  generally  found  along  the  borders  of  streams  and  swamps, 
in  moist,  fertile  soil. 

Propagation. — By  seed,  as  for  white  oak. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong  and  tough;  liable  to 
check  badly  in  seasoning.  Color  light  brown,  with  sapwood  of 
about  the  same  shade.  Durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Spe- 
cific gravity  0.7662;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  47.75. 

Uses. — The  Swamp  White  Oak  is  excellent  for  carriage  build- 
ing, cooperage,  agricultural  implements,  railway  ties,  fence  posts, 
cabinetmaking,  interior  finish  of  houses  and  for  fuel. 

Quercus  macrocarpa.     Bur  Oak.     Mossy-Cup  Oak.     Bur 
White  Oak. 

Leaves  large,  ovate  or  oblong,  lyrate-pinnatifid  or  deeply 
sinuate-lobed  or  parted,  the  lobes  sparingly  toothed  or  entire, 
irregular,  downy  or  pale  beneath  and  bright  green  above,  turn- 
ing to  a  dull  yellow  before  falling  in  autumn.  Cup  (cupule) 
deep,  thick,  woody,  conspicuously  imbricated  with  hard,  thick 
pointed  scales,  the  upper  ones  generally  awned  so  as  to  make 
a  mossy,  fringed  border,  but  this  is  occasionally  lacking. 
Acorns  ovoid,  almost  spherical,  half  or  wholly  inclosed  by  the 
cup.  Bark  rougher  and  darker  colored  than  that  of  the  White 
Oak.  A  large  tree,  varying  greatly  in  form,  sometimes  growing 
100  feet  high  and  six  or  seven  feet  through  the  trunk,  but  in 
this  section  seldom  over  seventy  feet  high  and  three  feet 
through. 

Distribution. — From  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  west- 
ward to  Manitoba,  Montana  and  Kansas,  and  southwestward  to 


294  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  34.     Quercus  tnacrocarpa.     Bur  Oak. 
i.     Flowering   branch,    one-half   natural    size.    2.     Fruiting   branch     one- 
natural    size.    3.     Staminate    flower,     enlarged.    4.     Pistillate    inflores- 


cence, enlarged. 


OAK.  -05 

Tennessee,  Indian  Territory  and  Texas.  In  Minnesota  common 
or  abundant  in  all  except  the  extreme  northeastern  part. 

Prorogation. — Very  easily  grown  from  seeds  planted  in  au- 
tumn. The  seedlings  in  good  prairie  soil  attain  a  height  of 
about  four  feet  in  five  years. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  rather  brittle,  coarse 
grained  and  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil;  color,  rich 
brown  with  much  lighter  brown  sapwood.  Specific  gravity 
°-74535  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  46.45  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Bur  Oak  is  the  most  magnificent,  most  durable 
and  longest  lived  tree  for  planting  throughout  this  whole  sec- 
tion. It  is  also  one  of  the  most  valuable  timber  trees  of  North 
America.  Although  its  wood  is  rather  coarser  grained  and  in- 
ferior in  strength  to  that  of  the  White  Oak,  with  which  it  is 
commercially  confounded,  yet  it  is  used  for  the  same  purposes. 

Quercus  rubra.    Red  Oak. 

-Leaves  oblong-obovate  to  oblong,  moderately  sometimes 
deeply  pinnatifid  with  rounded  sinuses,  seven  to  nine  narrow 
lobes,  these  and  the  teeth  being  bristle  pointed;  mature  leaves 
rather  thin,  turning  dark  red  after  frost  in  autumn.  Cup  saucer- 
shaped  or  flat,  with  a  narrow  raised  border  of  fine  scales,  sessile 
or  on  a  very  short  stalk,  very  much  shorter  than  the  acorn, 
which  is  oblong-ovoid  or  turgid-ovoid,  one  inch  or  less  in 
length,  with  a  bitter  kernel.  Two  years  are  required  to  ripen, 
the  nut,  which  is  consequently  found  on  the  old  wood  below 
the  leaves  of  the  season.  Bark  smoother  than  that  of  most 
oaks.  A  tree  seventy  to  eighty  or  more  feet  high,  with  a  trunk 
three  or  four  feet  in  diameter. 

Distribution. — From  Nova  Scotia  to  the  divide  west  of  Lake 
Superior  and  to  central  Kansas,  south  to  Georgia  and  Ten- 
nessee. In  Minnesota  found  along  the  Mississippi  river  and 
occasionally  in  other  parts,  but  is  not  very  common  anywhere 
in  the  state. 

Propagation. — Easily  grown  from  fall  sown  seeds. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  coarse  grained  and 
liable  to  check  badly  in  drying.  Specific  gravity  0.6621 ;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot,  41.25  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Red  Oak  has  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  this 
country  and  Europe  as  an  ornamental  tree,  for  which  its  stately 


296 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  35.     Quercus  rubra.     Red   Oak. 

i.  Flowering  branch  showing  immature  fruit  of  one  year's  growth,  one- 
half  natural  size.  2.  Stammate  flower,  enlarged.  3.  Pistillate  flower,  en- 
larged. 4.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Longitudinal  section 
of  fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  6\  Cup,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Mature 
leaf,  one-half  natural  size. 


OAK.  297 

form,  vigorous  growth  and  fine  autumn  coloring  make  it  es- 
pecially desirable.  No  oak  of  the  Northern  States  is  more 
easily  transplanted.  The  wood,  which  in  trade  is  not  distin- 
guished from  that  of  the  Scarlet  Oak,  is  used  for  interior  finish- 
ing, furniture  and  in  construction,  and  has  a  beautiful  grain  for 
finishing.  It  is  often  used  for  fuel,  but  is  generally  though  not 
universally  considered  much  inferior  to  the  White  Oak  for  this 
purpose. 

Quercus  coccinea.     Scarlet  Oak.     Black  Oak. 

Leaves  oblong  or  obovate,  deeply  pinnatifid  with  broad 
rounded  sinuses  and  slender  lobes  divergent  and  divided  at  the 
apex  into  several  teeth  which  are  bristle-pointed.  When  the 
leaves  unfold  they  are  bright  red  and  covered  with  pubescence, 
but  towards  maturity  they  become  shining  green  and  generally 
glabrous  above,  the  lower  side  in  this  section  often  furnished 
with  tufts  of  hair  in  the  axils  of  the  veins.  The  leaves  turn  a 
brilliant  red  or  scarlet  in  autumn,  remain  on  the  trees  in  this 
section  all  winter  and  fall  in  the  spring.  The  buds  are  often 
slightly  pubescent,  and  are  smaller  and  very  different  from  the 
large  tomentose  buds  of  Quercus  velutina.  The  fruit,  which 
ripens  in  the  autumn  of  the  second  year,  is  sessile,  or  on  a  stalk 
which  is  sometimes  an  inch  long.  It  is  oval  or  globular  ovoid, 
with  a  bitter  kernel.  A  'common  and  often  large  tree  in  this 
section,  where  it  is  generally  termed  Black  Oak,  and  is  found 
on  gravelly  ridges  and  sandy  land  interspersed  with  Bur  and 
Red  Oak. 

Distribution. — From  Maine  to  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
west  to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska. 

Propagation. — By  fall-sown  seeds. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  coarse  grained,  light 
or  reddish  brown  with  thick  darker  colored  sapwood.  Specific 
gravity  0.7095;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  42.20  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Scarlet  Oak  is  not  planted  to  so  great  an  extent 
as  the  Red  Oak  for  ornamental  purposes,  but  is  fully  as  desir- 
able because  of  its  beautiful  scarlet  autumn  coloring  and  rapid 
growth.  The  wood  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furni- 
ture, for  interior  finishing  and  for  fuel,  and  is  not  distinguished 
commercially  from  that  of  Red  Oak. 


298  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  36.     Quercus  coccinea.    Scarlet  Oak. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Pistillate  flower  cluster, 
enlarged.  3.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  4.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  5. 
Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6,  Acorn,  one-half  natural  size. 


ELM.  290 


ULMACEAE.    ELM  FAMILY. 

Genus  UlyMUS. 

Leaves  simple,  alternate,  two-ranked,  short  petioled,  straight 
veined,  usually  rather  rough.  Flowers  appear  before  the  leaves 
in  our  species;  perfect  or  rarely  polygamous,  apetalous,  green- 
ish, in  lateral  clusters;  calyx  four  to  nine  lobed;  stamens  four 
to  nine  with  long  slender  filaments;  ovary  superior,  one-celled 
or  rarely  two-celled,  flattened;  styles  two,  short  and  diverging. 
Fruit  a  samara  with  a  broad  membranous  margin,  one-celled, 
one-seeded,  ripens  in  early  summer;  seed  all  embryo.  A  genus 
of  about  fifteen  widely  distributed  species,  which  are  mostly 
large  deciduous  trees,  three  of  which  occur  in  our  range.  Most 
of  the  elms  produce  hard,  tough  wood,  that  is  often  difficult  to 
split.  The  European  species  have  given  rise  to  many  varieties 
differing  from  the  parent  species  in  many  ways,  but  chiefly  in 
habit  of  growth  and  color  of  foliage.  A  form  of  the  European 
Scotch  Elm  (U.  Montana)  with  pendulous  habit,  known  in  nur- 
series as  Camperdown  Weeping  Elm,  has  done  very  well  in  a 
somewhat  protected  location  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, -and  bids  fair  to  make  a  very  ornamental  specimen.  The 
stock  on  which  it  is  worked  (probably  U.  campestris),  however, 
has  sunscalded.  In  China  a  white  mucilaginous  meal  is  made 
from  the  inner  bark  of  the  Elm,  and  is  used  as  food  by  the 
mountaineers  of  the  northern  provinces  and  in  the  composition 
of  incense  sticks.  The  fruit  is  employed  in  medicine,  and  the 
bark  and  young  fruits  are  eaten  in  periods  of  severe  famine. 

Propagation. — The  species  are  grown  from  seeds  and  the 
varieties  by  layers,  budding,  and  grafting.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Slippery  Elm  (q.  v.)  the  seeds  should  be  sown  as  soon 
as  gathered. 

Ulmus  americana.    White  I£lm.    American  Elm.     Water 
Elm. 

Leaves  three  to  four  inches  long,  obovate-oblong  to  oval, 
usually  smooth  on  the  upper  and  soft  and  velvety  on  the  lower 
surface,  coarsely  and  doubly  serrate,  taper-pointed,  turning  to 
a  bright  yellow  before  falling.  Branches  small,  slender,  ascend- 
ing, at  length  spreading  and  pendulous;  twigs  and  buds  smooth, 


300 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  37.     Ulmus  americana.    White  Eim. 

i.  Portion  of  summer  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flowering 
branch,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size. 
4.  Portion  of  winter  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Flower,  enlarged. 
6.  Longitudinal  section  of  flower,  enlarged.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of 
pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  8.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  natural  size.  9. 
'Lmbryo,  enlarged.  10.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  natural  size. 


ELM.  301 

not  corky.  Flower?  appear  in  April,  in  dense  clusters,  with 
slender  drooping  pedicels.  Fruit  ripe  in  May,  smooth  except 
the  edges,  which  are  hairy,  with  incurved  sharp  points  at  the 
apex.  A  large  common  tree,  sometimes  120  feet  high  and  six 
feet  or  more  in  diameter.  This  tree  varies  greatly  in  habit; 
some  specimens  may  be  quite  upright  in  growth  while  others 
are  very  pendulous.  One  having  the  drooping  habit,  that  was 
found  in  Illinois,  is  now  offered  by  nurserymen. 

Distribution. — From  Newfoundland  and  along  the  northern 
shores  of  Lake " Superior  to  the  eastern  base  of  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, south  to  Florida  and  Texas  and  west  in  the  United  States 
to  the  Black  Hills  of  Dakota  and  western  Kansas.  In  Minne- 
sota common  throughout  the  state. 

Propagation. — Described  under  genus  Ulmus.  The  seeds  can 
often  be  swept  up  on  roadways  and  pavements  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

Properties  of  wood. — Very  tough  in  young  trees,  light  and 
moderately  strong  in  old,  difficult  to  split  and  rather  coarse 
grained;  color  light  brown,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood. 
Specific  gravity  0.6506;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  40.55  pounds. 

Uses. — The  White  Elm  has  always  been  the  favorite  shade 
and  ornamental  tree  in  the  Northern  States,  and  is  the  best 
street  and  park  tree  for  general  planting  in  this  section.  It 
is  also  one  of  the  hardiest  trees  for  prairie  planting,  and  will 
perhaps  withstand  as  great  extremes  of  temperature  and  moist- 
ure as  any  of  our  shade  trees.  It  is  a  rapid  and  often  strag- 
gling grower,  and  should  have  a  little  attention  in  the  way  of 
pruning  when  young  to  keep  it  in  its  best  form.  The  wood 
is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements, 
for  hubs  of  wagon  wheels,  for  saddletrees,  for  flooring,  in  coop- 
erage, for  flour  and  meal  barrels,  cheese  boxes,  etc.  The  bark 
was  used  by  the  Indians  when  they  could  not  procure  birch 
bark  in  making  their  canoes 'and  houses..  In  some  parts  of 
this  country  the  tough  inner  bark  was  formerly  twisted  into 
ropes. 

Ulmus  racemosa.    Cork  Elm.    Rock  Elm. 

Leaves  ovate-oblong  or  obovate,  taper-pointed,  smooth 
above,  pubescent  beneath,  resembling  those  of  the  White  Elm, 
but  less  sharply  serrate.  Twigs  and  bud  scales  pubescent; 


302 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  38.     Ulmus  racemosa.     Cork    Elm. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Cluster  of  flowers  sub- 
tended by  bud  scale,  enlarged.  3.  Flower,  enlarged.  4.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6. 
Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  two-thirds  natural  size.  7.  Summer  branch, 
one-half  natural  size. 


ELM.  303 

branches  generally  with  corky  ridges  or  wings.  Flowers  in 
April,  in  open  loose  racemes  with  slender  pedicels  not  in  clus- 
ters. Fruit  ripe  in  May,  an  ovate  elliptical  samara  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  pubescent,  with  margins  thickly  fringed, 
much  like  the  fruit  of  the  White  Elm,  but  somewhat  larger. 
Occasionally  a  tree  eighty  to  one  hu:  \red  feet  high  and  three 
feet  in  diameter. 

Distribution. — From  Quebec,  Ontario,  Vermont  and  northern 
New  York  west  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  Missouri  and  Ten- 
nessee. 

In  Minnesota  frequent  in  the  eastern  part  and  extending 
into  the  Minnesota  Valley  west  at  least  to  Montevideo,  Chip- 
pewa  county. 

Propagation. — Described  under  genus   Ulmus. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  very  strong  and  tough, 
close  grained,  susceptible  of  receiving  a  high  polish,  very  diffi- 
cult to  split.  It  is  light  brown,  with  yellowish  or  greenish 
white  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.7265;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
45.63  pounds. 

Uses. — As  an  ornamental  tree  the  Cork  Elm  is  occasionally 
used  in  place  of  the  White  Elm,  and  though  a  slower  grower 
its  great  hardiness  and  sturdy  form  make  it  very  desirable  for 
park  and  street  planting.  It  should  be  used  more  frequently 
than  at  present.  The  wood,  having  so  many  valuable  qualities, 
is  much  sought  for,  and  its  extinction  seems  possible.  It  is 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  large  agricultural  imple- 
ments, like  plows  and  threshing  and  mowing  machines,  for 
beams  of  stump  pullers,  bridge  timbers,  piles,  wagon  hubs,  rims 
of  bicycle  wheels  and  ax  handles.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  is 
superior  to  hickory.  In  fact,  it  is  superior  to  most  other  woods 
wherever  great  strength,  toughness,  solidity,  flexibility  and 
durability  are  required. 

Ulmus   pubescens.      (U.  fulva.}     Slippery   Elm.    -Red 
Elm.     Moose  Elm. 

Leaves  ovate-oblong,  doubly  serrate,  very  rough  above  and 
slightly  rough  or  soft  downy  beneath,  often  four  to  six  inches 
long,  taper-pointed,  trough  shaped,  turning  to  a  dull  yellow 
before  falling,  fragrant  while  drying.  Buds  before  expansion 
soft,  downy,  large;  branchlets  downy.  Flowers  in  April,  borne 


304 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  39.     Ulmus  pubescens.     Slippery  Elm. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Fruiting  branch,  one-halt 
natural  size.  3.  A  young  winter  branch  with  buds,  one-half  natural  size. 
4.  Winter  branch,  showing  flower  buds  beginning  to  enlarge,  one-half 
natural  size.  5.  Summer  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6.  Flower,  en- 
larged. 7.  Longitudinal  section  of  flower,  enlarged.  8.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  pistil,  enlarged.  9.  Stamen,  enlarged.  10.  Cross  section  of  ovary, 
enlarged,  n.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  12.  Seed, 
enlarged.  13.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  enlarged.  14.  Embryo,  en- 
larged. 


SOS 

on  short  pedicels.  Fruit  in  May  or  June,  nearly  circular,  about 
three-fourths  inch  long,  only  slightly  if  at  all  downy.  Tree 
of  medium  size,  forty  to  sixty  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  occa- 
sionally two  feet  in  diameter. 

Distribution. — From  Quebec  and  Ontario  west  to  North  Da- 
kota and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas;  less  common  than  the 
White  Elm.  In  Minnesota  frequent  throughout  the  state  ex- 
cept far  nothward. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  kept  stratified  until  the  spring  follow- 
ing the  period  of  ripening.  Unlike  the  other  elms,  the  seeds 
will  not  grow  the  same  season  that  they  mature. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  close  grained, 
durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  splits  as  freely  and  easily  as 
that  of  young  chestnut.  It  is  dark  brown,  with  thin,  light- 
colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.6956;  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  43.35  pounds. 

Uses. — In  cultivation  the  Slippery  Elm  is  a  shapely,  fast 
growing  tree,  well  adapted  to  this  section;  not  of  as  pretty  a 
form  nor  as  hardy  in  dry  locations  as  the  White  or  Rock  Elm, 
but  more  valuable  in  home  timber  lots.  When  planted  as  a 
street  tree,  the  bark  is  likely  to  be  stripped  off  by  boys.  The 
trees  when  planted  closely  together  grow  straight  and  tall  and 
make  excellent  poles  for  farm  use.  When  used  for  posts,  they 
should  be  cut  in  summer  and  be  peeled  and  dried  before  set- 
ting. When  this  is  done  they  will  last  a  long  time.  The  wood 
'is  used  for  sleigh  runners,  the  running  gear  of  carriages,  hubs 
of  wheels,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements. 
It  is  tough  when  boiled  or  steamed,  hence  is  one  of  the  best 
woods  for  ribs  of  canoes  and  skiffs.  The  thick  fragrant  inner 
bark  is  soft,  mucilaginous  and  slightly  nutritious.  It  has  been 
known  to  support  life  in  case  of  scarcity  of  food.  It  is  re- 
ported that  during  the  last  war  with  Great  Britain  the  soldiers 
on  the  Canadian  frontier  found  it  a  grateful  and  nutritious  food 
for  their  horses  in  times  of  scarcity  of  forage.  It  is  used  in 
medicines  for  affections  of  the  throat  and  lungs  and  for  other 
troubles. 


20 


306  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Genus  CEI/TIS. 

Leaves  alternate,  simple,  short  petioled.  Flowers  monoe- 
ciously  polygamous,  appearing  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the 
season;  the  staminate  in  little  clusters  or  racemes;  the  perfect 
flowers  solitary  or  in  pairs,  peduncled;  styles  two.  Fruit  a 
globular  drupe;  embryo  curved,  nearly  inclosing  a  little  gela- 
tinous albumen.  Only  one  species  in  the  Northern  States  of 
interest  to  us  here. 

Celtis   occidentalis.     Hackberry.      Sugarberry.      Nettle 
Tree. 

Leaves  quite  various,  but  usually  ovate  to  ovate-lancelate, 
sharply  and  coarsely  serrate  or  sparingly  so,  taper-pointed,  more 
or  less  rough  above  and  unusually  soft  pubescent  beneath,  at 
least  when  young.  Flowers  appear  in  April  and  May,  solitary, 
small,  white,  on  rather  long  peduncles.  Fruit  a  small,  solitary, 
round,  sweet  edible  drupe,  reddish  or  yellowish,  turning  a  dark 
purple  when  fully  matured,  remaining  on  tree  into  the  winter; 
peduncle  twice  the  length  of  the  petioles.  Generally  a  small, 
but  sometimes  a  large  tree  over  100  feet  high  and  two  or 
three  feet  in  diameter.  The  tree  resembles  the  White  Elm, 
but  the  branches  come  out  more  at  right  angles  and  the  bark 
is  rougher  and  more  closely  divided  than  that  of  the  White  Elm. 

Distribution. — From  Montreal  west  to  Lake  of  the  Woods  and 
North  Dakota,  and  south  to  Florida  and  eastern  Texas.  West 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  it  is  rare,  but  occurs  on  banks  of 
streams.  It  has  been  found  in  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon. 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  In  Minnesota  fre- 
quent in  the  southern  half  of  the  state,  and  not  uncommon  in 
the  valley  of  the  Red  River  even  near  the  extreme  northern 
limit  of  the  state. 

Propagation. — Easily  grown  from  seeds,  which  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  ripe  or  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in  the 
spring. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  rather  soft,  not  strong,  coarse 
grained,  dark  or  light  brown,  with  thick,  light  colored,  often 
yellowish,  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.7287;  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  45.41  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Hackberry  is  of  rapid  growth,  and  is  one  of  the 
best  trees  for  general  park,  lawn  and  prairie  planting  here. 


HACKBERRY. 


307 


Plate  40.     Celtis  occidentalis.     Hackberry. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Fruiting  branch,  one- 
half  natural  size.  3.  Winter  twig,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Staminate  flower 
before  straightening  of  filaments,  enlarged.  5-  Staminate  flower,  expanded, 
enlarged.  6.  Perfect  flower,  enlarged.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of  perfect 
flower,  enlarged.  8.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  natural  size.  9.  Trans- 
verse section  of  fruit,  natural  size.  10.  Diagram  of  flower. 


308  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

No  deciduous  tree  presents  a  more  graceful  appearance  in 
winter  when  the  finely  divided  spray  of  the  limbs,  and  the  small 
size  of  the  young  growth  make  it  very  attractive.  In  this  sec- 
tion it  is  preferred  to  the  White  Elm  for  a  shade  tree  by  some 
experienced  planters.  It  endures  drouth  well,  but  is  probably 
not  as  hardy  in  this  way  as  the  White  Elm.  It  is  also  less 
liable  to  split  in  the  crotches.  The  wood  to  some  extent  is 
used  to  take  the  place  of  elm,  as  in  harness  making. 


MORACEAE.    MULBERRY  FAMILY. 

The  largest  genus  of  this  family  is  Ficus,  which  contains  over 
600  known  species,  including  the  cultivated  fig  (Ficus  carica) 
and  the  Indiarubber  Tree  (Ficus  elastica).  The  following  genus 
contains  about  ten  species,  natives  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 

Genus  MORUS. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  milky  sap  and  alternate,  dentate  and 
often  lobed  leaves.  Flowers  monoecious  or  dioecious  (rarely 
polygamous)  in  axillary  catkin.-like  spikes,  the  pistillate  spikes 
ripening  into  succulent  aggregated  fruits.  Calyx  four-parted, 
in  the  pistillate  flower  becoming  fleshy;  stamens  four;  pistils 
one;  stigma  two. 

Morus  rubra.    Red  Mulberry. 

Leaves  ovate  or  nearly  orbicular  in  outline,  acute  or  taper- 
pointed,  occasionally  deeply  lobed,  glabrous  above,  persistently 
pubescent  beneath,  or  when  young  almost  tomentose.  Flowers 
appear  with  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves.  The  fruit,  which  is  at  first 
bright  red,  when  fully  grown  becomes  dark  purple  or  nearly  black, 
and  when  fully  ripe  is  sweet,  juicy  and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  It 
ripens  in  summer,  and  is  from  one  to  one  and  one-fourth  inches 
long.  South,  it  forms  a  large  tree,  with  brown  rough  bark, 
but  within  our  range  it  is  a  small  tree  or  mere  shrub. 

Distribution. — Vermont  to  Ontario,  Michigan,  and  South  Da- 
kota and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  In  Minnesota  it  reaches 
its  northern  limit  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 


MULBERRY.  309 

Propagation. — By  seeds  or  by  cuttings. 

Properties  of  ivood. — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  rather  tough, 
coarse  grained,  and  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Spe- 
cific gravity  0.5898;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  36.75  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Red  Mulberry  is  sometimes  used  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States  as  an  ornamental  tree,  where  it  forms  a 
large  spreading  tree  forty  feet  high.  It  well  deserves  a  place 
on  lawns  or  in  parks,  but  is  not  very  hardy  in  Minnesota.  The 
wood  is  valued  for  fence  posts,  and  is  used  in  cooperage;  in 
the  Southern  States  it  is  often  used  in  boat  building.  The 
inner  bark  is  fibrous,  and  was  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  South- 
ern States  for  making  a  coarse  cloth;  in  early  days  this  fiber; 
was  used  for  cordage.  The  leaves  have  been  largely  experi- 
mented with  as  food  for  silk  worms,  but  they  are  not  so  good 
for  this  purpose  as  those  of  the  White  Mulberry  (Morus.alba). 

Morus  alba  tartarica.    Russian  Mulberry. 

Leaves  thin,  smooth,  glabrous  and  somewhat  shining  on  both 
sides,  heart-shaped,  ovate  or  orbicular,  generally  deeply  lobed 
and  dentate.  The  same  plant  will  often  have  leaves  of  several 
forms.  Flowers  appear  with  the  leaves,  generally  dioecious 
or  monoecious,  but  rarely  polygamous.  The  fruit  ripens  early 
in  July,  and  is  white  or  purplish  in  color,  and  varies  from  three- 
fourths  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  As  commonly 
seen  it  is  a  low-growing,  very  bushy-topped,  small  tree  with 
light  gray  bark  and  spreading  branches. 

Distribution. — Native  of  central  Asia. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  cuttings,  layers  or  graftage.  The 
seeds,  if  sown  as  soon  as  gathered,  will  make  plants  about  one 
foot  high  the  first  season. 

Properties  of  wood. — Probably  much  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Red  Mulberry. 

Uses. — The  Russian  Mulberry  was  introduced  into  the  West- 
ern States  by  the  Russian  Mennonites,  who  esteem  it  very 
highly  for  its  many  good  qualities,  among  which  is  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  propagated,  its  rapid  growth,  the  value  of  the 
leaves  as  food  for  silk  worms,  its  fruit,  ornamental  appearance 
and  the  durability  of  the  wood  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  is 
not  perfectly  hardy  in  this  section,  but  generally  holds  on  well 
as  far  north  as  St.  Paul,  although  it  generally  kills  back  con- 


310 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  41.    Morus  alba  tartanca.     Russian  Mulberry. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Staminate  flower-cluster, 
enlarged.  4.  Pistillate  flower-cluster,  natural  size.  5.  Staminate  flower,  en- 
larged. 6.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistil, 
enlarged.  8.  Full  grown  lobed  leaf,  one-half  natural  size. 


MULBERRY.  311 

siderably  for  the  first  few  years  after  planting.  While  it  can 
be  grown  in  tree  form,  it  is  much  better  adapted  to  being  grown 
in  this  section  in  the  form  of  a  windbreak.  It  bears  pruning 
well,  and  makes  a  very  pretty  hedge,  but  is  not  adapted  to  turn- 
ing cattle,  as  it  is  unarmed.  The  fruit  is  insipid  and  generally 
small,  but  in  almost  every  large  lot  of  seedlings  a  few  speci- 
mens will  be  found  producing  fruit  of  good  size  and  fair 
quality.  While  the  fruit  is  not  marketable,  it  is  often  used 
domestically,  and  also  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  food  for 
birds  just  when  strawberries  and  raspberries  are  ripening,  and 
is  preferred  by  them  to  the  more  acid  berries,  hence  affords 
some  protection  to  these  more  important  crops.  Objections 
to  its  use  in  ornamental  planting  are  its  susceptibility  to  injury 
by  late  spring  frosts,  which  blacken  the  new  growth,  and  the 
early  falling  of  the  leaves  in  autumn.  While  its  leaves  are  well 
adapted  to  feeding  the  silk  worm,  and  have  been  successfully 
used  for  this  purpose  in  this  section  in  a  small  way,  yet  the 
industry  has  not  become  profitable. 

Varieties. — A  variety  known  as  Teas  Weeping  Mulberry  has 
been  partially  tried  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  and 
gives  promise  of  proving  sufficiently  hardy  for  somewhat  pro- 
tected places.  This  variety  is  vigorous,  naturally  sprawls  on 
the  ground,  and  when  worked  on  straight  stems,  its  very 
pendulous  branches  make  it  a  very  conspicuous  object.  Foli- 
age excellent. 


ROSACEAE.    ROSE  FAMILY. 

A  large  family  of  trees,  shrubs  and  herbs,  including  many  of 
our  cultivated  fruits  and  ornamental  plants. 

Genus  PYRUS. 

Leaves  simple  or  pinnately  compound,  flowers  white  or 
rose  colored,  in  corymbs,  cymes  or  clusters,  perfect,  regular; 
stamens  numerous;  styles  five  (sometimes  two  or  three); 
carpels  of  the  same  number,  two-seeded.  Seeds  in  cells  that 
are  made  up  of  horny,  parchment-like  thin  walls.  Fruit  a  pome. 


312  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

PytUS  ioensiS.     Iowa  Crab.     Wild   Crab.     Western  Crab. 

Leaves  simple,  oblong  or  obovate-oval,  variously  notched 
and  toothed;  the  lower  surface  as  well  as  the  leaf  stalks,  short 
pedicels  and  young  growth  densely  white  pubescent.  Flowers 
rose-colored,  fragrant,  much  like  those  of  Pyrus  coronaria,  with 
which  this  species  was  formerly  classed  and  is  now  sometimes 
referred  to  as  a  variety.  Fruit  round,  somewhat  flattened,  dull 
green  with  small  light  dots,  hard,  bitter,  keeps  through  the 
winter.  A  small  tree. 

Distribution. — Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  south  to  Kentucky 
and  Indian  Territory. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  or  by  graftage.  It  does  not  form  a 
durable  union  wth  Pyrus  mains,  although  such  unions  may  last 
several  years. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  close  grained,  not  hard  nor 
strong;  brown  to  light  red  in  color,  with  thick  yellow  sap- 
wood.  Specific  gravity  0.7048;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  43.92 
pounds. 

Uses. — The  Iowa  Crab,  with  its  large  fragrant  flowers,  forms 
a  very  pretty  small  ornamental  tree.  The  fruit  is  made  into 
preserves  and  cider.  Wrhen  growing  in  its  natural  state  the 
tree  is  hardy  and  is  seldom  injured  by  fire-blight,  but  seems 
to  be  very  much  subject  to  this  disease  when  cultivated,  es- 
pecially after  it  has  been  transplanted. 

Pyrus  americana.     Mountain  Ash.     American  Mountain 
Ash. 

Leaves  odd-pinnate;  leaflets  eleven  to  seventeen,  lanceolate, 
taper-pointed,  bright  green  above,  generally  paler  beneath.  • 
Flowers  in  large  compound  leafy  cymes,  appearing  in  May  or 
June.  Fruit  usually  three-celled,  globose  or  slightly  pear- 
shaped,  bright  red  with  thin  flesh,  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter, 
ripens  in  late  autumn  and  remains  on  the  tree  all  winter  unless 
eaten  by  birds.  A  small  tree  with  smooth  bark  seldom  reach- 
ing a  height  of  thirty  feet,  and  often  a  mere  shrub. 

Distribution.— From  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba  and  south- 
wards through  the  more  elevated  portions  of  northeastern 
United  States  and  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes.  It  reaches 
its  greatest  size  north  of  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron.  In 


IOWA  CRAB. 


313 


Plate   42.    Pyrus   ioensis.     Iowa    Crab. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Longitudinal  section  of 
flower  with  petals  removed,  natural  size.  3.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half 
natural  size.  4.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  5. 
Summer  branch,  one-half  natural  size. 


314  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

! 

Minnesota  common  through  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  ex- 
tending south  to  Pine  and  Mille  Lacs  counties. 

Propagation. — The  species  is  erown  from  seeds  and  the  varie- 
ties by  budding  and  grafting.  The  seeds  may  be  gathered  dur- 
ing the  autumn,  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in  the  spring, 
but  seeds  thus  treated  will  seldom  start  until  the  second  sea- 
son. A  better  way  is  to  put  the  seeds  ten  inches  deep  in  a 
hole,  and  cover  .with  three  inches  of  sand  in  the  autumn.  They 
should  remain  in  such  a  place  until  a  year  trom  the  follow- 
ing spring,  when  the  berries  will  be  thoroughly  rotted  and  the 
seeds  may  be  sifted  out  from  the  pulp  and  sown.  Thus  treated, 
they  come  up  the  season  of  planting. 

Properties  of  wood. — Soft,  light  and  weak,  pale  brown  with 
lighter  colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.5451;  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot  33.97  pounds. 

Uses. — The  American  Mountain  Ash  is  used  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  on  account  of  its  abundant  bright  colored  fruit,  but 
is  not  so  pretty  in  this  respect  as  the  European  or  Elderleaf 
Mountain  Ash.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  liable  to  sunscald, 
and  when  planted  in  exposed  places  it  should  be  encouraged  to 
send  up  sprouts  from  the  roots  and  from  the  lower  parts  of  the 
trunk.  Treated  in  this  way  it  forms  a  large  shrub  of  great 
value  from  an  ornamental  point  of  view,  and  is  very  hardy 
even  in  exceedingly  severe  locations.  The  fruit  is  astringent. 
It  is  used  in  some  homeopathic  and  domestic  remedies.  The 
wood  is  sometimes  used  as  a  veneer  in  cabinet  work. 

Pyrus  sambucifolia.    Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash. 

Leaves  odd-pinnate;  leaflets  seven  to -fifteen,  oblong-ovate, 
mostly  obtuse.  Flowers  appear  in  July,  in  small  dense  pubes- 
cent cymes.  The  fruit  is  globose,  bright  scarlet,  and  some- 
times nearly  a  half  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  produced  in  dense 
red-branched  clusters,  and  remains  on  the  tree  into  the  winter. 
A  small  tree  that  is  often  mistaken  for  Pyrus  americana,  from 
which  it  is  best  distinguished  by  its  smaller  cymes,  its  larger 
and  later  flowers  and  its  more  obtuse  and  broader  leaflets. 

Distribution. — It  is  found  growing  from  southern  Greenland 
to  Labrador  and  northern  New  England,  along  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  Little  Slave  Lake,  through  the 


MOUNTAIN  ASH. 


315 


2. 


Plate  43.    Pyrus  sambitcifolia.     Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash. 


i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Longitudinal  section  of 
flower,  enlarged.  3.  Traverse  sections  of  ovary,  enlarged.  4.  Cluster  of 
fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit.  6.  Cross 
section  of  fruit.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed.  8.  Embryo,  magnified. 
9.  Winter  buds,  one-half  natural  size. 


316  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Rocky  Mountains  to  Alaska  and  northeastern  Asia.  In  Minne- 
sota it  is  common  northward  extending  south  to  Lake  Itasca 
and  rarely  found  farther  south. 

Propagation. — Same  as  recommended  for  American  Mountain 
Ash. 

Properties  of  wood. — Practically  the  same  as  American  Moun- 
tain Ash. 

Uses. — The  large  and  brilliant  fruit  of  the  Elderleaf  Moun- 
tain Ash  makes  it  the  handsomest  of  all  Mountain  Ashes,  and 
as  it  is  very  hardy  it  is  a  desirable  lawn  tree.  Like  all  the 
Mountain  Ashes  it  is  likely  to  sunscald  on ,  the  trunk  when 
grown  singly  and  the  trunk  left  unprotected,  and  will  do  best 
if  several  sprouts  are  encouraged  to  grow  from  the  trunk  as 
recommended  for  the  American  Mountain  Ash. 

Pyrus  aucuparia.    European  Mountain  Ash. 

Leaves  odd-pinnate,  softer  and  more  graceful  than  those  of 
Pyrus  americana;  leaflets  thirteen  to  fifteen,  ovate,  generally 
blunt  pointed,  lower  surfaces  and  stalks  downy,  at  length 
glabrous.  Flowers  in  May  or  June  followed  by  large  red  ber- 
ries (one-half  inch  in  diameter)  which  hold  on  into  the  winter, 
There  are  varieties  with  yellow  and  orange  fruit.  Tree  of  fair 
size,  often  thirty  feet  high,  much  more  graceful  than  the  Ameri- 
can Mountain  Ash. 

Distribution. — Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation  and  properties  of  wood. — About  the  same  as  the 
American  Mountain  Ash. 

Uses. — The  European  Mountain  Ash  is  a  good,  small  orna- 
mental tree  of  graceful 
habit,  conspicuous  for  its 
numerous  large  clusters 
of  white  flowers  in  May 
or  June  and  for  its 
bright  red  and  orange 
fruit  in  autumn  and  win- 
ter. It  is  about  as  hardy 
as  the  American  Moun- 
tain Ash,  but  of  more 
rapid  growth.  It  should 

Figure  59-     Weeping  Mountain  Ash.  be    treated    in    the    SamC 

way. 


MOUNTAIN  ASH. 


317 


Varieties. — There  are  several  varieties,  varying  in  habit  of 
growth  and  color  of  fruit.  The  following  are  the  ones  most 
commonly  planted: 

Pyrus  aucuparia  pendula.    Weeping  Mountain  Ash. 

A  form  with  pendulous,  graceful  habit.  It 
grows  freely,  is  hardy  and  is  interesting  for 
variety.  It  is  largely  used  as  a  lawn  curiosity. 
Propagated  by  grafting  onto  the  American  or 
European  Mountain  Ash. 


Pyrus    hybrida. 
Ash. 


Oakleaf  Mountain 


Leaves  five  to  six  inches  long,  lyrate  pin- 
natifid,  often  pinnate  at  the  base,  irregularly 
and  sharply  serrate,  dark  green  and  glabrous 
above,  pale  and  densely  pubescent  beneath. 
Flowers  white,  in  large  conspicuous  clusters. 
Propagated  by  grafting  onto  the  European  or 
American  species.  This  Mountain  Ash  forms 
a  very  pretty  lawn  or  park  tree  of  upright 
pyramidal  habit,  attaining  a  height  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet.  In  hardiness  it  ranks  with  the 
European  Mountain  Ash.  It  is  said  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  Pyrus  aria  (Sweet  Beam  Ash,  one-third  nat- 
Tree)  and  Pyrus  aucuparia. 

Genus  AMEI,ANCHIER. 

A  small  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  with  alternate  simple 
leaves,  racemose  white  flowers  and  edible  fruit. 

Amelanchier   canadensis.      Serviceberry.      Juneberry. 
Servicetree. 

Leaves  ovate  or  oval,  pointed,  finely  serrate,  reddish  brown, 
with  scattered  white  hairs  when  young,  becoming  dark  green 
above  and  paler  beneath  at  maturity;  stipules  early  decidu- 
ous. Flowers  appear  after  the  leaves  in  spreading  or  drooping 
racemes;  petals  thin,  pure  white,  about  one-half  inch  long; 
calyx  much  shorter  than  petals.  Fruit  one-fourth  to  one-half 
inch  in  diameter;  ripens  in  early  summer,  dark  purple  when 


318  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

fully  ripe,  sweet  and  edible.  A  tree  sometimes  reaching  a 
height  of  fifty  feet,  but  seldom  over  twenty-five  feet,  and  often 
a  mere  shrub. 

Distribution. — From  Newfoundland  westward  along  the  north- 
ern shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  eastern  Nebraska,  and  south 
to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

Propagation. — The  species  by  seeds  and  the  varieties  by  suck- 
ers, layers  and  cuttings. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  very  hard,  close-grained,  sus- 
ceptible of  a  good  polish;  dark  brown  in  color,  with  thick 
lighter-colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.7838;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  48.85  pounds. 

Uses. — The  profusion  of  white  flowers  produced  by  the  Serv- 
iceberry  in  early  spring  makes  it  a  pretty  ornamental  tree  or 
shrub  at  that  time  of  the  year.  It  may  be  planted  to  supply 
food  for  the  birds  or  to  produce  fruit  for  home  use.  The 
wood  is  occasionally  used  for  handles  of  tools  or  other  small 
implements. 

Varieties. — Amelanchier  canadcnsis  varies  considerably  in  the 
form  of  the  leaves,  size  of  flowers  and  fruit  and  in  habit  of 
growth.  The  following  is  the  most  distinct  of  these  varieties. 

Amelanchier  canadensis  obovalis.    I<ongleaf  Service- 
tree.     Dwarf  Juneberry.     Suscutanberry. 

Leaves  oblong  or  broadly  elliptical,  acute  or  rounded  at  the 
apex,  remotely  serrate  or  nearly  entire  below  the  middle,  coated 
at  first  on  the  lower  surface  with  thick  white  tomentum.  Flow- 
ers smaller  than  those  of  the  species.  A  small  bush  or  tree 
common  in  Quebec,  Ontario  and  the  Northeastern  States,  and 
in  localities  westward  to  the  Mackenzie  river,  North  Dakota, 
Minnesota  and  Missouri.  A  dwarf  form  of  this,  with  large 
fruit,  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  through  the  Northern  States. 
The  Indians  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota  gather  the  berries  in 
rather  large  quantities  and  sell  small  quantities  -in  some  of  the 
remote  towns. 

Amelanchier  alnifolia.    Western  Serviceberry.    Ser- 
viceberry. 

Leaves  broadly  ovate,  obtuse  or  rarely  acute,  coarsely  dentate 
or  serrate  towards  the  apex.  Flowers  in  erect  rather  dense 


DOTTED  HAW.  319 

racemes.  Fruit  dark  blue  or  almost  black,  sweet  and  juicy. 
A  shrub  or  small  tree  which  in  the  eastern  limits  of  its  range 
is  hardly  distinguishable  from  some  of  the  broad-leaved  forms 
of  Amelanchicr  canadensis. 

Distribution. — From  the  valley  of  the  Yukon  river  south 
through  the  coast  ranges  to  southern  California  and  east  to 
Michigan  and  Nebraska. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  and  suckers. 

Properties  of  wood. — Very  heavy,  hard  and  close  grained, 
light  brown.  Specific  gravity  0.8262;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
51.55  pounds. 

Uses. — The  fruit  as  found  in  the  wild  state  is  gathered  by  the 
Indians  and  used  by  them  for  food. 

Genus  CRAT^GUS. 

Leaves  alternate,  simple,  lobed  or  pinnatifid.  Flowers 
mostly  in  terminal  corymbs,  regular,  perfect,  white  or  rarely 
rose  colored.  Fruit  a  fleshy,  drupe-like  pome,  containing  one 
to  five  hard  one-seeded  carpels,  and  having  on  its  summit  the 
persistent  calyx  lobes.  Small  trees  or  shrubs,  armed  with 
thorns.  It  is  very  difficult  to  identify  accurately  the  species  of 
this  genus  on  account  of  their  varying  and  conflicting  charac- 
teristics. There  are  undoubtedly  six  or  more  species  in  Minne- 
sota, and  they  are  now  being  studied  by  specialists,  but  are  not 
accurately  defined. 

Propagation. — The  fruit  should  be  stratified  over  winter  be- 
fore sowing  the  seeds,  which  seldom  germinate  until  the  second 
year. 

Crataegus  punctata.    Dotted  Haw. 

Leaves  wedge-obovate  or  ovate,  midribs  and  principal  veins 
prominent  on  lower  surface.  Petioles  more  or  less  winged. 
Flowers  in  broad  corymbs,  appearing  about  June  ist.  Each 
flower  has  twenty  stamens,  which  characteristic  seems  to  be 
constant.  Fruit  dull  red,  one-half  to  one  inch  in  length,  flesh 
dry;  ripens  in  late  autumn.  A  tree  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high, 
with  branches  that  come  out  nearly  at  right  angles,  and  often 
a  broad  flat  top.  Thorns  on  the  older  branches  and  trunks 
generally  compound  and  gray  in  color. 


320 


TREES  OE  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  44.    Craiaegus   punctata.     Dotted    Haw. 

i.  A  flowering  branch'.  2.  A  flower.  3.  A  fruiting  branch.  4.  Cross- 
section  of  fruit.  5.  A  nutlet  divided  transversely.  6.  A  characteristic 
thorny  branch. 


WILD  PLUM.  321 

Distribution. — At  least  quite  common  in  the  southern  half  of 
Minnesota. 

Uses. — Valuable  for  hedges  and  as  a  lawn  tree  in  good  soil. 
The  wood  is  heavy,  hard  and  strong,  and  is  often  used  for  walk- 
ing sticks  and  firewood. 

Genus  PRUNUS. 

Shrubs  or  trees  with  alternate,  simple  leaves.  Flowers  with 
calyx  that  is  deciduous  after  flowering;  a  single  pistil  with  a 
superior  ovary  containing  a  pair  of  ovules  and  becoming  a 
single  drupe  or  stone  fruit.  This  genus  comprises  some  of  our 
most  valued  fruits,  such  as  the  Plum,  Peach,  Cherry,  Apricot 
and  Nectarine,  and  ornamental  plants  such  as  the  Double  Flow- 
ering Almond.  All  the  species  here  referred  to  are  ornamental 
when  in  flower. 

This  genus  seems  to  divide  more  or  less  into  two  groups, 
which  are  distinguished  by  the  form  of  inflorescence,  one  group 
bearing  its  flowers  in  racemes  and  the  other  in  umbels.  It  is 
of  interest  to  notice  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  quite  impossible, 
to  graft  or  bud  trees  of  the  different  groups  together,  while 
within  each  group  trees  of  the  different  species  can  be  grafted 
quite  readily. 

Prunus  americana.    Wild  Plum. 

Leaves  oval  or  slightly  obovate.  Flowers  appear  when  the 
leaves  are  about  one-half  unfolded.  Fruit  large,  colored  with 
red  and  yellow,  often  with  a  heavy  bloom;  generally  ascerb  but 
frequently  good;  the  parent  of  our  cultivated  sorts  such  as 
Rollingstone,  Wolf,  Forest  Garden,  De  Soto,  Cheney  and 
others;  ripens  August  to  September.  A  small  thorny  tree, 
seldom  over  twenty  feet  high,  and  generally  found  growing 
in  thickets.  A  form  of  this  that  flowers  very  early  and  has 
fruit  with  a  thin  pit  is  considered  a  variety  or  perhaps  a  separate 
species.  (P.  nigra.)  The  Aitkin  Plum  comes  under  this  head. 

Distribution. — It  is  found  from  New  York  and  New  Jersey  to 
Nebraska  and  the  upper  Missouri  Valley  south  to  northern 
Mexico  and  western  Florida.  In  Minnesota  throughout  the 
state,  in  thickets  along  banks  of  streams. 

Propagation. — Grown  from  the  seeds,  which  should  not  be 
allowed  to  become  hard  and  dry,  but  should  be  stratified  if  they 
21 


322  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

are  expected  to  grow  the  following  spring.  Lf  planted  in  the 
autumn  as  soon  as  separated  from  the  pulp  about  two-thirds 
of  the  seeds  will  grow  the  following  spring  and  the  remainder 
the  second  year.  It  may  also  be  grown  from  sprouts  and  roots 
cuttings. 

Properties  of  zvood. — Heavy,  hard,  close  grained  and  strong, 
It  is  dark  brown  in  color,  with  a  thin  light-colored  sapwood, 
and  takes  a  good  polish.  Specific  gravity  0.7313;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  46.95  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Wild  Plum  is  pretty  in  flower  and  in  fruit,  and 
is  a  good  hardy  ornamental  tree,  as  well  as  a  good  fruit  tree. 
The  fruit  of  the  wild  kinds  is  readily  sold,  and  is  much  used 
for  culinary  purposes,  and  many  of  the  cultivated  kinds  afford 
excellent  table  fruits.  This  is  one  of  the  best  undershrubs  that 
can  be  put  in  our  prairie  groves,  where  it  affords  protection  to 
the  soil  from  evaporation  and  at  the  same  time  yields  desirable 
though  of  course  inferior  fruit  under  such  conditions. 

Prunus    pennsylvanica.      Wild    Red    Cherry.      Bird 
Cherry.     Pigeon  Cherry.     Pin  Cherry. 

Leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  long  pointed,  finely  and  sharply 
serrate,  with  incurved  teeth  often  tipped  with  minute  glands, 
thin,  shining,  green  and  smooth  on  both  sides.  Fruit  ripens 
in  July  or  August,  a  very  small,  bright  red  drupe  with  thin  sour 
flesh  and  smooth  oblong  stone  that  is  ridged  on  the  ventral 
margin.  A  small,  handsome  tree  that  seldom  reaches  a  height 
of  forty  feet,  and  is  often  a  mere  shrub.  It  has  smooth,  red- 
dish-brown, bark,  which  peels  off  in  transverse  strips  around 
the  tree. 

Distribution. — Found  in  moist,  rather  rich  soil  from  New- 
foundland west  to  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range  and 
south  to  northern  Illinois  and  Pennsylvania;  also  in  North 
Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Colorado.  In  Minnesota  common 
throughout  all  but  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  where  it 
rarely  occurs. 

Propagation. — Grown  from  seeds,  which  should  be  stratified 
and  sown  in  the  spring  or  sown  in  autumn.  They  are  dis- 
tributed by  robins,  wax-wings  and  other  birds  that  eat  largely 
of  the  fruit.  The  Wild  Red  Cherry  has  thus  become  a  very 
common  tree  in  waste  places,  although  not  so  common  in  our 


CHERRY. 


323 


Plate  45.     Prunus  pennsylvanica.      Wild  Red  Cherry. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Longitudinal  section  ol 
flower.  3.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  fruit,  slightly  enlarged.  5.  Cross  section  of  fruit.  6.  Embryo 
enlarged.  7.  Axil  of  leaf  showing  stipules,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Win- 
ter branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


324  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

section  as  eastward,  where  it  is  one  of  the  first  trees  to  come 
in  on  old  timber  lands. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  close  grained,  light  brown  in 
color,  with  thin  yellow  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.5023;  a 
cubic  foot  weighs  31.30  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Wild  Red  Cherfy  is  very  hardy,  grows  rapidly 
under  cultivation,  and  is  well  adapted  to  prairie  planting.  It 
is  shapely  and  handsome,  although  a  short  lived  tree.  In  the 
early  spring  it  is  conspicuous  by  reason  of  its  great  quantity 
of  white  flowers.  It  might  be  used  for  shade  in  timber  plant- 
ings and  for  bird  food.  The  fruit  is  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses and  in  the  preparation  of  cough  mixtures.  Seedlings 
have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  stock  for  the  cultivated 
cherries. 

Prunus   serotina.     Black  Cherry.     Wild  Black  Cherry. 
Rum  Cherry. 

L/eaves  oval  oblong,  or  lanceolate-oblong  taper-pointed,  ser- 
rate, with  two  to  four  reddish  glands  on  petiole.  Flowers  ap- 
pear in  June  after  the  leaves  are  full  grown,  in  long  pendulous 
white  racemes.  Fruit  somewhat  larger  than  a  pea,  purplish 
black  when  ripe,  smooth,  one-seeded,  rarely  two-seeded,  ripens 
in  August  or  September  in  Minnesota.  A  large  tree,  sixty  or 
more  feet  high,  but  generally  much  smaller  at  the  limit  of  its 
range. 

Distribution. — From  Nova  Scotia  westward  through  the 
Canadian  Provinces  and  Northern  States  to  Dakota,  and  south 
to  Texas  and  Florida.  In  Minnesota  common  throughout  all 
but  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  state,  in  woods  along 
shaded  lake  shores  and  banks. 

Propagation. — The  Black  Cherry  is  grown  from  seeds  which 
are  produced  in  great  abundance.  They  should  be  sown  when 
gathered  in  the  autumn,  or  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in 
the  spring. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  strong  and  rather  hard,  with  a 
close,  straight  grain  and  satiny  surface  susceptible  of  receiving  a 
beautiful  polish.  It  is  light  brown  or  red,  with  a  thin  layer  of 
yellow  sapwood,  but  grows  darker  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Spe- 
cific gravity  0.5822;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  36.28  pounds. 


CHERRY. 


320 


Plate  46.    frunus  scrotina.     Black    Cherry. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Longitudinal  section  ol 
flower,  enlarged.  3.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  4.  Cross  sec- 
tion of  fruit,  natural  size.  5.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  natural  size.  6. 
Winter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


320  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Uses.—  The  Black  Cherry  has  a  pretty  and  often  a  stately 
form  when  growing  single,  and  is  very  ornamental  when  in 
flower  and  fruit.  It  is,  however,  liable  to  injuries  from  the 
tent  caterpillar,  which  is  very  fond  of  its  leaves.  It  can  often 
be  introduced  to  advantage  into  timber  plantings  in  this  section, 
and  is  an  object  of  much  interest  on  account  of  its  flowers  and 
fruit.  It  is  also  a  good  timber  tree.  The  fruit  is  often  used  in 
a  small  way  for  making  cherry  brandy  and  in  flavoring  alco- 
holic liquors.  Medicinal  properties  are  found  in  the  bark,  es- 
pecially in  that  of  the  branches  and  roots,  and  are  readily  yielded 
to  cold  water,  for  owing  to  volatilization  and  chemical  change 
boiling  water  must  not  be  used.  This  extract  contains  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  and  is  employed  for  infusions,  syrups  and  fluid  ex- 
tracts, which  are  used  as  tonics  and  sedatives  in  the  treatment 
of  pulmonary  consumption  and  nervous  debility.  Cattle  have 
been  frequently  poisoned  by  eating  the  wilted  leaves.  Children 
occasionally  die  -from  eating  the  kernels  of  the  pits  or  by  swal- 
lowing the  fruit  whole.  Fresh  leaves  are  considered  harmless, 
as  the  poison  is  formed  by  chemical  action  in  the  leaves  after 
being  separated  from  the  plant.  The  wood  is  valuable  for 
cabinet  making  and  fine  interior  finishing,  and  is  in  great  de- 
mand, on  account  of  its  fine  reddish  brown  color,  for  tripods, 
surveyors'  rods  and  cases,  and  spirit  levels.  It  is  also  used 
for  printers'  furniture  and  wood  type,  school  apparatus,  drawing 
instruments,  gunstocks.  crutches,  toys  and  tool  handles. 

Prunus  virginiana.    Choke  Cherry. 

Leaves  thin,  broadly  oval  to  oblong,  usually  abruptly  pointed. 
Flowers  in  racemes  (shorter  and  closer  than  in  P.  serotina),  ap- 
pearing in  June.  Fruit  ripens  in  summer,  red,  turning  dark 
crimson,  astringent  when  first  colored,  but  later  loses  much  of 
its  astringency  and  becomes  sweet  and  edible.  A  small  tree 
with  scented  bark,  rarely  thirty  feet  high,  and  generally  short 
and  crooked.  (In  this  section  it  is  generally  covered  with  the 
excrescences  called  Black  Knot,  which  are  caused  by  the  fungus 
Plowrightia  morbosa.) 

Distribution. — From  Labrador  to  British  Columbia,  north  to 
within  the  Arctic  Circle  and  south  to  Georgia,  Texas  and  Cali- 
fornia. Very  widely  distributed.  In  Minnesota  common 
throughout  the  state  along  banks  of  streams  and  lakeshore, 


CHERRY. 


327 


Plate  47.    Prunus  vlrginiana.     Choke  .Cherry. 

i.  A  flowering  branch.  2.  A  fruiting  branch.  3.  Part  of  a  leafy  branch 
with  stipules.  4.  A  winter  branchlet,  reduced.  5.  Vertical  section  of 
flower,  enlarged.  6.  Vertical  section  of  fruit,  enlarged.  7-  A  stone,  one- 
half  natural  size,  8.  Branch  showing  Black  Knot,  reduced. 


328  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Propagation. — Grown  from  seeds,  which  should  be  stratified 
over  winter  and  sown  in  the  spring. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard  and  close  grained,  but  not 
strong.  It  is  light  brown  in  color,  with  a  thick  light  colored 
sapwood.  The  specific  gravity  0.6951;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
43.42  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Choke  Cherry  is  a  very  handsome  tree  when  cov- 
ered with  its  abundant  racemes  of  pure  white  flowers  and  also 
when  in  fruit,  but  generally  it  is  so  disfigured  by  Black  Knot  as 
to  make  it  unsightly.  The  fruit  is  used  in  large  quantities  by 
the  French  Canadians  and  was  formerly  an  important  article  of 
food  among  the  northern  Indians,  and  is  now  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  Western  States.  In  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas 
there  is  a  form  that  is  much  superior  to  the  common  Choke 
Cherry,  in  that  it  has  larger,  less  astringent  fruit.  Some  authors 
make  it  a  separate  species  (Prunus  demissa),  but  Professor 
Sargent  regards  it  as  a  variety  whose  variations  are  due  to  the 
drier  climate  of  the  mid-continental  states. 


LEGUMINOSAE.    PEA  FAMILY, 

Distinguished  by  the  butterfly-shaped  (occasionally  regular) 
corolla,  usually  accompanied  by  ten  monadelphous  or  diadelphus 
stamens  (rarely  distinct);  fruit  a  legume;  leaves  alternate,  com- 
pound with  stipules. 

A  large  and  important  family,  comprising  trees,  shrubs  and 
herbs.  Some  of  our  most  important  agricultural  plants  belong 
here,  such  as  the  pea,  bean,  clover,  alfalfa,  vetch,  peanut,  etc., 
and  among  shrubs  the  Siberian  Pea  Tree  (Caragana),  Cytisus, 
Bladder-senna  (Colutea)  and  Wistaria.  Important  trees  be- 
longing here  that  are  beyond  our  range  are  the  Yellow-wood 
(Cladrastis),  Sophora,  Laburnum,  Mesquit  and  Red  Bud* 
(Cercis). 


*Perhaps  found  in  Southern  Minnesota. 


HONEY   LOCUST.  321) 


Genus 

Gleditsia    triacanthos.      Honey    I/ocust.      Threethorn 
Acacia.     Black  Locust. 

Leaves  evenly  once  or  twice  pinnately  compound;  thorns 
very  stout,  from  two  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  usually 
sending  out  two  thorns  as  branches;  but  in  some  sections, 
notably  in  Iowa,  many  trees  may  be  found  without  thorns,  and 
these  are  especially  desirable  for  windbreaks.  Flowers  in  June, 
polygamous,  greenish  and  inconspicuous  in  small  spike-like 
axillary  racemes.  Fruit  a  flat,  linear,  dark-colored  pod,  often 
twelve  inches  long,  which  becomes  much  twisted  as  the  seed 
ripens.  This  pod  contains  a  pulp  which  is  sweet  at  first,  but 
after  a  few  weeks  ferments  and  becomes  astringent.  The  seed 
ripens  in  autumn,  and  the  pods  fall  off  in  late  autumn  or  early 
winter.  The  twisted  form  of  the  pods  assists  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  seed,  as  the  pods  do  not  open  until  some  time  after 
they  fall,  and  may  be  rolled  for  long  distances  by  the  wind  over 
the  frozen  ground  or  on  the  snow. 

Distribution.—  It  inhabits  rich  woods  and  borders  of  streams 
from  western  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia  west  to 
southern  Ontario,  eastern  Nebraska,  Louisiana  and  Texas.. 

Propagation.  —  The  Honey  Locust  is  easily  grown  from  seeds 
which  should  be  gathered  in  late  autumn,  early  winter  or  as  soon 
as  the  pods  fall.  The  seeds  must  be  scalded  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  recommended  for  the  Common  Locust,  or  they  may  re- 
main in  the  soil  a  year  before  growing. 

Properties  of  wood.  —  Heavy,  hard,  strong  and  very  durable  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  It  is  coarse  grained,  of  a  red  or 
bright  reddish  brown  color,  with  thin,  pale  sapwood.  Specific 
gravity  0.6740;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  42  pounds. 

Uses.  —  The  Honey  Locust  is  a  valuable  tree  for  street  and 
ornamental  planting,  for  timber  belts,  windbreaks  and  for 
hedges  wherever  it  is  hardy.  It  has  a  graceful  form,  is  a  rapid 
grower,  easy  to  transplant,  very  free  from  insect  and  fungous 
diseases,  and  not  given  to  sprouting  from  the  root.  The  wood 
is  used  for  fence  posts  and  rails,  for  the  hubs  of  wheels  and  to 
some  extent  for  construction.  It  also  makes  good  fuel.  This 
tree  is  not  generally  hardy  in  Minnesota,  though  it  has  stood  very 
well  in  favorable  locations  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
state,  and  even  at  St.  Paul  has  done  fairly  well  where  protected, 


330 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  48.     Gleditsia  triacanthos.     Honey  Locust. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Diagram  of  flower. 
4.  Longitudinal  section  of  staminate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Longitudinal 
section  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.^  6.  Longitudinal  section  of  ovary,  en- 
larged. 7.  A  spine  and  a  single  fruit  showing  seed,  cross  section  of  seed 
and  embryo,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Doubly  pinnate  leaf,  one-half  natural 
size.  9.  Winter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


COFFEETREE.  331 

but  is  likely  to  kill  back  in  severe  winters,  though  the  roots  are 
very  hardy  and  generally  renew  the  top  the  season  following  any 
winter  injury.  In  Iowa  and  Missouri  it  forms  a  large  tree, 
often  three  feet  through  the  trunk.  The  one-year-old  seedlings 
are  rather  tender  the  first  winter,  and  should  be  dug  and  heeled 
in  or  heavily  mulched  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  after  which 
they  are  rather  hardy. 

Genus  GYMNOCI,ADUS. 

Gymnocladus    dioicus.       (G.   canadensis.)      Coffeetree. 

Kentucky  Coffeetree. 

Leaves  very  large,  two  to  three  feet  long,  twice  pinnate,  each 
partial  leaf  stalk  bearing  seven  to  thirteen  ovate  leaflets,  the 
lowest  pair  with  single  leaflets.  The  leaflets  stand  vertically. 
The  color  of  the  leaves  is  a  bluish  green.  The  flowers  are 
dioecious  or  polygamous,  whitish,  borne  in  large  racemes  which 
are  much  longer  on  the  fertile  than  on  the  sterile  trees.  Fruit 
a  large  flat  pod,  containing  large  seeds  over  one-half  inch  in 
diameter,  surrounded  by  a  thick  layer  of  dark  colored  sweet 
pulp.  The  fruit  generally  remains  unopened  on  the  tree  all 
winter.  Flowers  appear  from  May  to  July. 

Distribution. — One  of  the  rarest  forest  trees  of  North  America, 
found  growing  from  western  New  York  and  southern  Ontario 
west  to  the  Minnesota  Valley,  and  eastern  Nebraska  and  south 
between  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to 
Tennessee.  In  Minnesota  it  is  found  sparingly  in  southern  and 
southeastern  portions  of  the  state  north  .to  near  St.  Paul  and  as 
far  west  as  New  Ulm. 

Propagation. — Grown  from  root  cuttings  or  from  seeds,  which 
should  be  scalded  before  being  sown,  as  recommended  for  the 
seeds  of  Locust. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  not  very  hard,  strong,  coarse 
grained,  likely  to  check  in  drying,  but  very  durable  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  It  can  be  easily  worked,  and  takes  a  good 
polish.  It  is  rich  brown  in  color,  with  thin  rather  lighter 
colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.6934;  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  43.21  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Coffeetree  is  graceful  and  ornamental  when  in 
leaf,  and  in  winter  is  interesting  from  its  peculiar  naked  a.n4 


382 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  49.     Gymnocladus  dioicus.     Coffeetree. 

i.  Inflorescence  from  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Pistil- 
late flower,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Diagram  of  flower.  4.  Longitudinal 
section  of  staminate  flower,  natural  size.  5.  Pistillate  flower  with  a  por- 
tion removed.  6.  Pistil  with  section  of  ovary  removed.  7.  Portion  of 
branch  bearing  a  single  fruit  showing  seed  and  embryo,  one-half  natural  size. 
8.  Cross  section  of  seed,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  Portion  of  leaf,  one- 
half  natural  size.  10.  Portion  of  winter  branch,  one-half  natural  size. 


LOCUST.  333 

dead  appearance.  It  is  one  of  the  latest  trees  to  leaf  out,  and 
the  new  growth  is  strikingly  pretty.  The  leaflets  near  the  ends 
of  the  leaves  are  bright  pink,  while  those  that  opened  first  are 
green  or  bronze  colored.  The  young  leaves  in  June  are  a  rich 
brown  color.  It  is  very  hardy,  and  is  not  particular  about  the 
soil  in  which  it  grows,  but  attains  a  large  size  only  in  rich,  deep, 
moist  soils.  The  wood  is  occasionally  used  in  cabinet  making 
and  for  fence  posts,  rails  and  in  construction.  As  the  name 
implies  the  seed  has  sometimes  been  used  as  a  substitute  for 
coffee.  Its  chief  value  is  for  ornament. 

Genus  ROBINIA. 

Robinia  pseudacacia.     I^ocust.     Yellow    Locust.     Black 
Locust.     Common  Locust.     False  Acacia. 

Leaves  alternate,  pinnately  compound,  composed  of  from 
nine  to  seventeen  leaflets.  Flowers  white,  fragrant,  in  con- 
spicuous pendulous  racemes  three  to  five  inches  long  appear- 
ing in  latter  part  of  May  or  early  in  June.  Pods  flat,  four  to 
five  inches  long,  containing  about  six  hard,  small  and  rather  flat 
seeds,  which  ripen  in  late  autumn  and  often  hang  on  the  tree 
all  winter.  The  light,  handsome  foliage  of  this  tree  constitutes 
one  of  its  principal  charms;  the  leaves  open  during  the  day 
and  as  night  comes  on  close  d%own  as  if  for  rest.  The  young 
growth  is  usually  furnished  with  strong  recurved  prickles, 
though  trees  can  frequently  be  found  that  are  entirely  free  from 
them,  and  it  is  this  latter  form  that  is  used  in  some  European 
countries  as  fodder  for  cattle.  A  slender  forest  tree,  occasion- 
ally reaching  the  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  two  feet. 

Distribution. — Southern  Pennsylvania  to  Indiana,  Iowa  and 
southward.  Under  cultivation  it  has  become  widely  distributed. 
In  Minnesota  it  is  found  along  the  Mississippi  river  as  far  north 
as  Minneapolis,  and  occasionally  elsewhere  in  this  state,  some- 
times forming  trees  fifty  feet  or  more  in  height,  but  generally 
it  is  much  smaller,  and  often  forms  mere  thickets  which  are  oc- 
casionally killed  back  in  severe  winters. 

Propagation. — The  Locust  is  grown  from  seeds,  which  may 
be  gathered  in  the  pods,  kept  in  any  dry  place,  and  planted  in 
the  spring.  Just  before  planting  the  seeds  should  be  scalded 


334 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate   50.     Robinia   pscudacacia.    Locust. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flower,  front  view,  one- 
half  natural  size.  3.  Tube  of  stamens.  4.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistil. 
5.  Diagram  of  the  flower.  6.  Legumes,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Pod 
open  showing  seed,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  A  seed,  one-half  natural  size. 


MAPLE.  335 

severely.  This  causes  part  of  them  to  swell.  Sift  or  pick  these 
out  and  scald  those  remaining  again.  Continue  this  scalding 
and  sifting  until  all  have  swelled.  The  seed  can  then  be  sown 
at  once  in  well  prepared  soil,  and  will  in  good  soil  produce 
plants  three  or  more  feet  high  the  first  season.  They  may  also 
be  grown  from  root  cuttings  and  from  sprouts. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  exceedingly  hard  and  strong, 
close  grained  and  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground.  •  It 
is  brown  or  light  green,  with  very  thin,  pale  yellow  sapwood. 
The  specific  gravity  is  0.7333;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  45.7  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Locust  is  too  tender  for  general  planting  in 
Minnesota,  but  in  favorable  locations  it  makes  a  desirable  lawn 
tree  on  account  of  its  pretty  foliage  and  white  flowers.  It  can 
be  sown  in  forest  plantations,  but  is  not  generally  desirable  for 
such  places  on  account  of  its  sharp  prickles,  its  tendency  to 
sprout  and  its  liability  to  being  occasionally  killed  back,  although 
it  seldom  kills  out.  This  tree  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  borers, 
which  generally  spoil  the  value  of  the  timber  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  The  wood  is  valuable  for  posts,  ribs  of  vessels,  tree 
nails,  and  anything  which  requires  great  strength.  It  is  also 
excellent  for  fuel.  It  is  a  very  popular  tree  in  Europe,  and  is 
said  to  be  more  extensively  cultivated  there  than  any  other 
American  tree.  The  bark  of  the  root  is  tonic,  or  in  large  doses 
purgative  and  emetic,  and  is  used  in  homeopathic  remedies. 
Three  cases  of  poisoning  in  children  who  had  eaten  the  root 
by  mistake  have  been  recorded. 


ACERACEAE.    MAPLE  FAMILY. 

A  family  composed  of  two  genera,  only  one  of  which  is  rep- 
resented in  America. 

Genus  ACER. 

A  genus  of  about  100  species  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  watery 
often  saccharine  sap  and  opposite  simple  leaves.  Flowers  regu- 
lar, generally  polygamous  or  dioecious  and  sometimes  apetalous; 
ovary  two-celled,  having  two  ovules  in  each  cell.  Fruit  a 
double  samara.  The  bark  is  astringent,  and  yields  coloring 
matter. 


336  TREES   OF  MINNESOTA. 

Acer    saccharum.      (A.   saccharinum.)      Sugar    Maple. 
Hard  Maple.     Rock  Maple. 

Leaves  large,  three  to  five  toothed,  opposite,  deep  green 
above  and  paler  green  beneath.  Flowers  greenish  yellow,  in 
nearly  sessile  umbel-like  corymbs,  apetalous,  appearing  with  the 
leaves  in  the  spring.  Fruit  a  double  samara;  wings  rather 
broad;  seed  ripens  in  autumn.  The  foliage  becomes  very  bril- 
liantly colored  in  autumn. 

Distribution. — A  large  and  important  tree  in  the  Northern  and 
Middle  States,  extending  southward  to  Florida  and  Texas  and 
from  Newfoundland  to  North  Dakota  and  northern  Minne- 
sota. Very  abundant  in  eastern  Minnesota,  though  seldom 
found  in  the  western  portions.  It  occurs  at  Lake  Minnewaska, 
in  Pope  county,  and  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Redwood  river 
in  Lyon  county,  and  as  far  west  as  Robert  county,  South  Da- 
kota, where  it  occurs  in  the  coulies  at  the  head  waters  of  the 
Minnesota  river. 

Propagation. — The  Sugar  Maple  is  propagated  by  seeds,  which 
should  be  gathered  in  autumn  and  sown  at  once  or  kept  over 
winter,  as  recommended  for  the  Ash,  and  sown  in  the  spring. 

Properties  of  wood. — Very  hard,  heavy,  compact  and  strong, 
with  a  fine  satiny  surface  susceptible  of  taking  a  good  polish. 
The  perfectly  seasoned  sapwood  is  light  colored,  and  the  heart- 
wood  is  light  brown  of  various  shades.  Specific  gravity  0.6916; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  43.08  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Sugar  Maple  is  very  hardy  over  most  of  Minne- 
sota in  rich,  porous,  moist  soils,  when  grown  in  forests,  and 
forms  our  best  fuel  wood.  It  does  well  as  a  street  tree  on 
suitable  soil  in  the  southeastern  part  of  this  state  if  the  trunk  is 
shaded.  When  not  thus  protected  the  trunk  is  liable  to  sun 
scald.  In  the  northwestern  and  western  portions  it  often  winter- 
kills badly  in  exposed  locations,  especially  when  young  and 
before  becoming  well  established,  and  for  this  reason  is  not  well 
adapted  to  general  planting. 

The  wood  of  the  Sugar  Maple  is  more  valuable  and  more 
generally  used  than  that  of  any  other  American  Maple.  It  pos- 
sesses a  high  fuel  value,  is  largely  used  for  interior  finish  of 
buildings,  especially  for  floors,  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture, 
agricultural  implements,  school  apparatus,  musical  instruments, 
gymnasium  goods,  drawing  instruments,  surveyors'  rods,  artists' 


MAPLE. 


337 


Plate  51.        Acer  saccharum.     Sugar  Maple. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Fruiting  branch,  one- 
half  natural  size.  4.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Longitudinal  section 
of  staminate  flower,  enlarged.  6.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  7.  Longi- 
tudinal section  of  pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  8.  Longitudinal  section  of 
fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  enlarged.  10. 
Embryo,  enlarged,  u.  Winter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


338  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA.  ^  ... 

goods,  wood  type,  and  engravers'  wood,  butter  molds,  croquet 
sets,  crutches,  umbrella  sticks  and  canes,  kegs,  sugar  hogsheads, 
churns,  measures,  faucets,  wood  screws  and  gauges  charcoal,  in 
turnery  for  handles  of  tools  and  clothes  pins,  and  in  ship  build- 
ing for  keels,  etc.  In  the  United  States  shoe  lasts  and  pegs 
are  made  almost  exclusively  from  this  wood.  Accidental  forms 
in  which  the  grain  is  beautifully  curled  and  contorted,  known 
as  "curled  maple"  and  "bird's-eye  maple"  are  common,  and 
highly  prized  for  cabinet  making.  The  ashes  of  the  wood  are 
rich  in  alkili,  and  yield  large  quantities  of  potash.  The  wood  of 
the  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  Sugar  Maple  is  so  very  hard  and 
uneven  in  grain  that  it  has  not  been  worked  much  into  lumber, 
and  the  supply  of  Hard  Maple  lumber  manufactured  here  is 
mostly  imported  from  Michigan,  where  clear  stock  is  more 
plentiful.  Maple  sugar  is  almost  the  exclusive  product  of  this 
tree.  It  is  made  by  evaporating  the  sap,  which  is  procured  by 
tapping  the  trees  in  early  spring  some  weeks  before  the  buds 
begin  to  swell.  About  three  or  four  gallons  of  sap  are  usually 
required  to  make  a  pound  of  sugar.  Two  or  three  pounds  of 
sugar  per  tree  is  the  average  yield,  but  large  isolated  trees  will 
often  yield  very  much  more  than  this.  When  tapping  is  prop- 
erly done  it  does  not  seriously  impair  the  health  of  the  tree. 

Acer  platanoides.    Norway  Maple. 

Leaves  broad,  smooth,  thin,  bright  green  on  both  sides,  their 
five  short  taper-pointed  lobes  set  with  coarse  taper-pointed  teeth. 
Flowers  numerous,  with  both  sepals  and  petals  distinct,  yellow- 
ish, conspicuous,  in  erect  corymbose  clusters  terminating  the 
shoot  of  the  season,  or  some  from  lateral  buds  appearing  with 
the  leaves.  Fruit  in  drooping  clusters,  with  large  divergent 
wings  spreading  two  and  one-half  to  three  and  one-half  inches, 
ripening  in  autumn.  Buds  blunt  pointed  and  rather  divergent; 
new  growth  often  reddish;  juice  milky.  Resembles  the  Sugar 
Maple  in  general  appearance,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  it. 
Its  leaves  hold  green  later  than  other  maples,  and  turn  a  bright 
yellow  in  autumn.  A  round-headed  tree  attaining  a  height  of 
from  thirty  to  sixty  feet. 

Distribution. — Northern  and  central  Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  for  the  species  and  by  budding,  graft- 
ing or  layering  for  the  varieties. 


MAPLE. 


339 


Plate  52.    Acer  platanoides.     Norway  Maple. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Staminate  flower.  3. 
Perfect  flower.  4.  Underside  of  flower.  5.  Pistil  on  disk.  6.  Stamen, 
enlarged.  7.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  seed.  g.  Leaf,  one-half  natural  size. 


340  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard  and  durable  under  cover. 
Specific  gravity,  air  dried,  0.68. 

Uses. — The  Norway  Maple  has  been  much  used  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  in  the  Northeastern  States,  where  it  is  long  lived 
and  often  planted  in  preference  to  the  Sugar  Maple  near  the 
sea  coast.  In  this  section  it  has  not  been  widely  tried,  but  at 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  it  has  never  been  seriously 
injured  by  the  cold  during  the  past  twelve  years,  and  has  with- 
stood drouth  extremely  well.  In  the  very  dry  summer  of  1894, 
Birch,  Black  Cherry  and  European  Larch  died  out  in  large 
numbers  in  the  forest  plantation,  while  on  similar  land  near  by 
the  Norway  Maple  grew  vigorously,  its  leaves  retaining  their 
dark  green  color  throughout  the  season.  The  wood  of  the 
Norway  Maple  is  used  by  the  joiner,  wheelwright  and  carver 
for  a  variety  of  purposes. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  the  Norway  Maple, 
the  most  durable  of  which  are  the  two  following: 

Acer  platanoides  schwedlerii.     Schwedler  Maple. 

A  beautiful  variety  with  new  growth,  bark  and  leaves  of  a 
bright  purplish  or  crimson  color  which  later  changes  to  a 
purplish  green.  A  valuable  tree  which  has  stood  at  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station  for  six  years. 

Acer  platanoides  reitenbachi.    Reitenbach  Maple. 

An  excellent  and  striking  variety  with  dark  purple  leaves, 
which  hold  their  color  throughout  the  season. 

Acer   saccharinum.     (A.  dasycarpum.}     Silver   Maple. 

Soft  Maple.     White  Maple.     Silverleaf  Maple. 

Leaves  deeply  palmately  five-lobed,  silvery  white  and  smooth 
beneath  but  downy  while  young.  Flowers  greenish,  apetalous, 
on  short  pedicles,  in  axillary  clusters,  appearing  before  the 
leaves;  ovary  and  young  fruit  downy.  Fruit  with  large  di- 
vergent wings,  smooth  at  maturity  though  downy  when  young, 
ripens  in  early  summer  about  the  time  the  leaves  are  of  full 
size.  A  large,  quick  growing  tree,  often  ninety  feet  high,  with 
more  or  less  pendulous  branches  and  light  airy  foliage,  which 
gives  it  a  graceful  appearance. 


MAPLE. 


341 


Plate  53.    Acer  saccharinum.    Silver   Maple. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Fruiting  branch,  one- 
half  natural  size.  4.  Staminate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Pistillate  flower,  en- 
larged. 6.  Pistil,  enlarged.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistillate  flower,  en- 
larged. 8.  Longitudinal  section  of  samara,  one-half  natural  size.  9. 
Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  enlarged.  10.  Embryo,  enlarged,  n.  .Em- 
bryo, displayed,  enlarged. 


342 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Distribution. — It  is  found  in  the  north  from  the  valley  of  the 
St.  John  river  in  New  Brunswick  to  southern  Ontario.  It  ex- 
tends southward  through  the  United  States  to  western  Florida 
and  west  to  eastern  Dakota  and  Nebraska.  It  is  adapted  to  a 
wide  variety  of  soils,  and  is  especially  abundant  along  rivers, 
often  growing  luxuriantly  on  sand  bars  and  land  that  is  in- 
undated by  spring  freshets.  A  very  common  tree  in  southern 
and  central  Minnesota  and  north  along  the  Mississippi  valley. 

Propagation. — By  seeds, 
which  drop  off  in  early 
summer,  and  where  they 
fall  on  moist  soil  they  soon 
grow.  They  are  very  deli- 
cate, however,  and  cannot 
be  kept  in  good  condition 
many  weeks  after  they  are 
ripe.  If  sown  at  once  in 
good  moist  soil  they  will 
often  produce  plants  two 
feet  or  more  high  the  first 
season,  and  the  growth  is 
also  very  rapid  in  subse- 
quent years.  The  ornamen- 
tal varieties  are  propagated 
by  grafting  or  budding  on 
the  seedlings,  and  occasion- 
ally by  layering. 

Properties  of  wood.  — 
Light,  hard  (though  not 
nearly  so  hard  as  Sugar 
Maple),  rather  brittle  and 

easily   worked.     It   is   pale, 
Figure    61.     Leaf    of    Wier's    Cutleaf 
Maple— one-half  natural  size.  faintly    tinged    With    brown. 

The  sapwood  is  light  colored  and  thick.     Specific  gravity  0.5269; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  32.84  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Silver  Maple  is  exceedingly  hardy  and  of  very  rapid 
growth,  but  suffers  from  a  deficiency  of  moisture  in  the  soil. 
It  makes  a  very  good  street  and  lawn  tree  on  retentive  land, 
and  is  adapted  to  a  wide  variety  of  soils.  The  limbs  are  brittle, 
and  the  crotches  of  the  tree  are  weak  and  likely  to  break  in 


MAPLE.  343 

severe  wind  storms.  This  is  most  apparent  where  it  grows  on 
dry  land,  but  if  the  trees  are  primed  occasionally  they  make 
very  satisfactory  shade  trees,  and  are  highly  esteemed  for  this 
purpose  in  many  sections  of  Minnesota.  The  Silver  Maple  is 
also  successfully  used  for  shelter  belts.  It  sun  scalds  occa- 
sionally, though  not  commonly.  The  wood  makes  very  good 
fuel,  and  is  well  adapted  for  interior  finishing  and  flooring,  and 
a  form  of  it  having  a  curly  figure  is  used  as  veneering  for  ele- 
gant furniture  and  interior  finishing.  It  is  much  used  for  shoe 
pegs.  Maple  sugar  is  sometimes  made  from  the  sap  of  this 
tree,  but  it  is  estimated  that  twice  as  much  sap  is  necessary  for  a 
given  quantity  of  sugar  from  this  tree  as  from  the  Sugar  Maple. 
Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  cultiA^ated  for  ornamnetal 
planting,  among  the  best  of  which  is  a  form  known  as  Wier's 
Cutleaf  Maple,  which  has  finely  divided  leaves  and  a  very  grace- 
ful pendent  habit.  It  is  about  as  hardy  as  the  species,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  satisfactory  small  ornamental  trees. 

Acer  rubrum.   Red  Maple.    Scarlet  Maple.    Swamp  Maple. 

Leaves  palmately  three  to  five-lobed,  opposite.  Flowers 
crimson  scarlet,  or  sometimes  yellowish,  generally  dioecious; 
appearing  in  sessile  lateral  clusters  before  the  leaves  very  early 
in  the  spring,  often  before  the  snow  has  disappeared.  The  fruit 
on  prolonged  drooping  pedicles  ripens  in  early  summer,  about 
the  time  the  leaves  are  expanded,  and  then  drops  off.  This  is 
a  slender  tree,  somewhat  resembling  the  Silver  Maple,  but  of 
much  slower  growth  and  more  compact  habit.  It  will  finally 
attain  as  large  size  as  the  Silver  Maple. 

Distribution. — It  is  found  naturally  distributed  over  about  the 
same  area  as  the  Silver  Maple,  but  does  not  appear  to  be  a  com- 
mon tree  anywhere  in  Minnesota,  and  seems  to  be  wholly  absent 
in  the  western  half  of  this  state. 

Propagation. — The  Red  Maple  is  propagated  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Silver  Maple. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  close  grained,  easily  worked,  and 
not  very  strong.  It  is  light  brown  often  tinged  with  red,  with 
a  smooth,  satiny  surface.  The  sapwood  is  thick,  and  lighter 
colored  than  the  heartwood.  Specific  gravity  0.6178;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  38.5  pounds. 


344 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  54.    Acer  rubrum.    Red  Maple. 

i.  Branch  bearing  staminate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Branch 
bearing  pistillate  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Staminate  flower,  en- 
larged. 4.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  nat 
ural  size.  6.  Longitudinal  section  ot  fruit,  one-halt  natural  size.  7.  Lon- 
gitudinal section  of  seed,  enlarged.  8.  Embryo,  displayed,  enlarged.  9. 
Winter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


MAPLE.  345 

Uses. — On  account  of  its  slow  growth  the  Red  Maple  is 
seldom  used  for  planting,  although  very  hardy.  It  is,  however, 
very  ornamental  in  the  spring  when  loaded  with  its  brilliant  red 
fruit,  which  often  appears  while  the  branches  are  •still  destitute 
of  leaves,  and  the  gorgeous  blaze  of  scarlet  coloring  of  its  leaves 
in  autumn  makes  it  a  very  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape 
at  that  season.  It  could  often  be  employed  to  advantage  in 
ornamental  planting.  The  timber  is  a  valuable  fuel;  it  is  used 
for  floors,  cabinet  work,  turnery,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
shovels,  bowls  and  small  wooden  ware  generally.  The  curly 
figure  is  sometimes  found  in  this  wood,  and  is  sometimes  used 
for  choice  veneering.  The  sap  of  the  Red  Maple  is  not  so  rich 
in  sugar  as  that  of  the  Sugar  Maple,  but  produces  a  very  good 
quality  of  maple  sugar. 

Acer  spicatum.    Mountain  Maple. 

Leaves  three  or  slightly  five-lobed,  thin,  downy  on  the  lower 
surface,  at  maturity  glabrous  above.  Flowers  small,  greenish 
yellow,  in  upright  dense,  sometimes  compound  racemes,  ap- 
pearing after  the  leaves,  the  fertile  towards  the  base  and  the 
sterile  at  the  ends  of  the  racemes;  petals  much  longer  than  the 
sepals.  Fruit  with  small  erect  or  divergent  wings.  Within 
our  range  a  low  shrub,  with  slender  erect  branches;  in  the 
shade  in  moist  woods  the  branches  are  of,ten  rather  flexible,  and 
it  is  probably  on  this  account  that  it  is  given  the  name  of  Vine 
Maple  in  some  parts  of  this  section. 

Distribution. — Valley  of  the  St  Lawrence  to  northern  Minne- 
sota and  the  Saskatchewan,  southwards  through  the  mountains 
to  Georgia.  Common  in  Minnesota  south  to  Mille  Lacs. 

Propagation. — By  seeds. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  light  brown  with  thick  lighter 
colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.5330;  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  33.22  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Mountain  Maple  may  occasionally  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  shrubbery  in  shady  situations.  The  tree  is  so  small 
that  the  wood  is  of  no  special  economic  importance. 


340  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Acer  pennsylvanicum.    Striped  Maple.     Moosewood. 

Leaves  large,  five  to  seven  inches  long,  palmately  three- 
nerved,  thre.e-lobed  at  the  apex,  finely  and  doubly  serrate. 
Flowers  greenish,  in  slender  drooping  long-stemmed  racemes; 
the  sterile  and  fertile  generally  produced  on  different  racemes 
on  the  same  plant,  appearing  when  the  leaves  are  nearly  full 
grown.  Fruit  with  spreading  wings,  in  long  drooping  racemes, 
ripens  in  autumn.  An  upright  shrub  in  this  section,  seldom  tak- 
ing on  a  tree  form. 

Distribution. — Maine  and  Minnesota  southwards  to  Virginia 
and  Kentucky. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  as  recommended  for  Ash. 

Properties  of  zvood. — Light,  soft  and  close  grained,  light  brown 
with  thick  lighter  colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.5299; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  33.02  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Striped  Maple  is  used  in  New  York  and  south- 
wards for  lawn  planting,  and  may  in  this  section  be  used  for 
shrubberies.  The  brilliant  foliage  and  bud  scales  in  early  spring, 
the  graceful  flowers  and  summer  foliage,  the  brilliant  autumn 
coloring  of  the  leaves  and  the  conspicuously  striped  markings 
of  the  bark  make  the  Striped  Maple  an  interesting  and  attractive 
feature  of  the  landscape.  Well  worthy  of  a  trial  in  shrubberies 
on  retentive  soil. 

Acer  tartaricum.    Tartarian  Maple. 

Leaves  ovate  or  oblong,  mostly  undivided,  incised-serrate, 
very  bright  colored  in  autumn;  young  branches  tomentose. 
Flowers  conspicuous,  white,  in  erect  clusters  terminating  the 
shoots  of  the  season,  appearing  after  the  leaves.  Fruit  ripens 
in  autumn.  A  small  tree  or  shrub. 

Distribution. — Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  as  recommended  for  Ash. 

Uses. — Valuable  for  -variety  in  ornamental  planting.  Very 
hardy  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 

Varieties. — 

Acer  tartaricum  ginnala. 

This  has  mostly  three-lobed  leaves,  which  are  longer  than 
those  of  the  species. 


BOXELDER. 


347 


Plate  55.    Acer  negundo.     Boxelder. 

i.  Flowering  branch  from  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2. 
Flowering  branch  from  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Diagram 
of  flower.  4.  Staminate  n'ower.  5.  Pistillate  flower.  6.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  ovary,  enlarged.  7.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  8. 
Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  9.  Embryo,  enlarged. 


348  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Acer  negundo.     (Negundo  aceroides.}     Boxelder.     Ash- 
leaf  Maple. 

Leaves  opposite,  pinnately  compound  with  three  to  five 
leaflets.  Flowers  dioecious,  apetalous  small,  greenish,  appear- 
ing just  before  or  with  the  leaves.  The  seeds  are  oval  in  form, 
ripen  in  autumn,  and  hang  on  the  trees  until  winter  in  this  sec- 
tion. Many  trees  bear  fruits  that  to  outward  appearance  con- 
tain perfect  seeds  but  which  upon  examination  will  be  found 
to  be  empty  seed  vessels. 

Distribution. — One  of  the  most  widely  distributed  and  hardi- 
est trees  of  North  America,  ranging  from  the  valley  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan to  Florida  and  Texas  and  from  Vermont  to  the  east- 
ern slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  the  Minnesota  river 
bottoms  this  tree  grows  seventy  feet  high  and  three  feet  in 
diameter,  while  in  severe  locations  it  becomes  a  low  bushy  tree. 

Propagation. — By  seeds  sown  as  soon  as  ripe  in  the  fall  or 
stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in  the  spring. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  close  grained,  but  weak.  It 
is  creamy  white,  with  thick,  hardly  distinguishable  sapwood. 
Specific  gravity  0.4328;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  26.97  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Boxelder  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  trees,  and 
is  highly  esteemed  for  street  and  lawn  planting  and  for  wind- 
breaks in  severe  locations.  It  has,  however,  been  too  often 
planted  where  the  White  Elm  or  Green  Ash  should  have  been 
used.  The  wood  makes  good  fuel;  it  is  sometimes  used  for 
interior  finishing,  woodenware,  paper  pulp,  etc.  Maple  sugar 
is  sometimes  made  from  this  tree,  though  the  sap  is  not  so  rich 
in  sugar  as  the  sap  of  the  Sugar  Maple. 


HIPPOCASTANACEAE.    BUCKEYE  FAMILY. 

An  order  consisting  of  two  genera,  the  following  of  which 
contains  about  fifteen  species  natives  of  America  and  Asia. 
None  are  native  of  Minnesota. 

Genus  ^SCUI/US. 

Leaves  opposite,  digitate,  three  to  nine-foliate.  Flowers  in  a 
terminal  dense  panicle,  often  polygamous,  most  of  them  with 


HORSE  CHESTNUT.        .  349 

imperfect  pistils,  and  only  those  near  the  base  of  the  branches 
of  the  inflorescence  perfect  and  fertile;  calyx  tubular,  five-lobed, 
often  oblique  or  swollen  at  the  base;  petals  four  or  five;  more 
or  less  unequal  with  claws;  stamens  five  to  eight;  ovary  three- 
celled  with  two  ovules  in  each  cell.  Fruit  a  roundish  leathery 
pod,  three-celled  and  three-seeded  or  usually  by  suppression  one 
or  two-celled  and  one  or  two-seeded,  the  remnants  of  the 
abortive  cells  and  seeds  commonly  visible  in  the  ripened  pods, 
seeds  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  broad,  with  a  hard  chestnut 
brown  coat;  embryo  filling  the  seed;  cotyledons  very  thick  and 
fleshy.  The  large  seeds  of  both  species  contain  a  large  amount 
of  starch,  but  present  with  it  is  a  bitter  principle,^esculine,  which 
renders  them  unfit  for  food  for  man,  although  they  are  some- 
times fed  to  sheep,  goats  and  swine.  This  bitter  principle  may 
be  removed  by  repeated  washings  in  pure  water,  and  were  it 
not  for  the  cost  of  the  operation  the  nuts  could  be  made  a 
valuable  food  for  man. 

Propagation.  —  Both  species  here  described  are  easily  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  which  should  generally  be  sown  in  autumn, 
for  they  soon  lose  their  vitality;  also,  by  layers  made  in  spring 
or  fall.  The  varieties  may  be  grown  by  grafting.  - 


hippocastanum.    Horse  Chestnut. 

Leaves  made  up  of  five  to  seven  (generally  seven)  leaflets. 
Inflorescence  large  and  conspicuous.  Petals  five,  spreading, 
white,  spotted  with  purple  and  yellow.  A  large  tree,  with  round 
top,  large  sticky  buds  and  very  dense  foliage. 

Distribution.  —  Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation.  —  Described  under  genus. 

Properties  of  wood.  —  Light,  soft,  easily  worked,  light-colored, 
not  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil. 

Uses.  —  The  Horse  Chestnut  is  used  in  the  Eastern  and 
Central  states  as  a  shade  tree.  It  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  for 
general  planting  in  this  state,  and  should  never  be  used  except 
in  very  favorable  locations  in  southern  Minnesota.  The  bark 
has  been  used  in  tanning  and  as  a  substitute  for  cinchona  in 
the  treatment  of  fevers  and  in  homeopathic  remedies. 


350 


TREES  OE  MINNESOTA. 


Plate   56.    JEsculus  glabra.     Ohio   Buckeye. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Diagram  of  flower.  3. 
Longitudinal  section  of  staminate  flower,  natural  size.  4.  Longitudinal 
section  of  pistillate  flower,  natural  size.  5.  Transverse  sections  of  pistil, 
enlarged.  6.  Longitudinal  section  of  ovary,  enlarged.  7.  Portion  of  sum- 
mer branch,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Fruit  with  portion  removed,  one- 
half  natural  size.  9.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  one-half  natural  size. 
10.  Winter  bud,  one-half  natural  size. 


BUCKTHORN.  351 

glabra.     Ohio  Buckeye.     Fetid  Buckeye. 

Leaves  made  up  of  five  to  seven  (generally  five)  leaflets. 
Inflorescence  appearing  with  the  leaves,  five  to  six  inches  long, 
not  large  and  showy  like  the  Horse  Chestnut.  Stamens  usually 
seven,  curved,  longer  than  the  pale  yellow-green  corolla;  petals 
four,  upright.  Buds  large,  not  sticky.  Tree  generally  not 
more  than  thirty  feet  high. 

Distribution. — Pennsylvania,  south  to  northern  Alabama  and 
west  to  southern  Iowa,  central  Kansas  and  Indian  Territory. 

Propagation. — Described  under  genus. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  close  grained  but  not  strong, 
often  blemished  by  dark  lines  of  decay;  nearly  white  with  thin, 
darker  colored  sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.4542;  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  28.31  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Ohio  Buckeye  is  much  hardier  than  the  Horse 
Chestnut,  and  stands  fairly  well  in  this  section  as  far  north  as 
St.  Paul,  where  there  are  some  very  good  small  specimens  in 
the  parks.  It  is  of  value  to  give  variety  to  ornamental  plant- 
ings. The  wood  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wooden  ware, 
paper  pulp  and  artificial  limbs.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  is 
preferred  to  that  of  all  other  American  trees. 


RHAMNACEAK    BUCKTHORN  FAMILY. 

Genus  RHAMNUS. 

We  have  no  native  species  of  importance  in  this  genus.  R. 
catharticus,  a  foreign  species,  is  so  valuable  as  an  ornamental 
shrub  that  it  is  here  described. 

Rhamnus  catharticus.    Buckthorn.    English  Buckthorn. 

Leaves  ovate,  minutely  serrate,  opposite  or  nearly  so.  Flow- 
ers usually  dioecious,  small,  greenish.  Fruit  a  three  to  four 
seeded  black  berry,  hanging  on  the  branches  all  winter.  A 
shrub  or  small  tree  with  thorny  branchlets. 

Distribution. — Throughout  northern  Europe,  where  it  is  na- 
tive. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  should  be  gathered  in  autumn, 
kept  stratified  over  winter,  and  planted  in  the  spring  or  by 


352 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate  57.    Rhamnus  catharticus.     Buckthorn. 

i.  Flowering  branch  from  staminate  plant,  one-half  natural  size.  2. 
Flowering  branch  from  pistillate  plant,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Staminate 
flower,  enlarged.  4.  Longitudinal  section  of  staminate  flower,  enlarged. 
5.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  6.  Longitudinal  section  of  pistillate  flower, 
enlarged.  7.  Cross  section  of  ovary.  8.  Single  fruit,  one-half  natural  size. 
9.  Single  fruit  with  a  part  removed  to  show  nutlets.  10.  Cross  section  of 
seed.  ii.  Embryo.  12.  View  of  grounds  showing  the  use  of  Buckthorn 
for  a  hedge. 


BASSWOOD.  353 

layers.       If   the   fruit   is   allowed  to   hang   on   the   bushes   until 
spring  in  this  section  many  of  the  seeds  may  be  injured. 

Uses. — The  Buckthorn  is  used  largely  for  hedges,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  one  of  the  hardiest,  thriftiest  and  cleanest  plants 
that  can  be  used  in  this  section.  It  bears  pruning  well,  and 
hedges  of  it  can  be  made  very  ornamental.  As  single  specimens 
it  is  desirable  for  park  planting  and  for  screens.  The  seeds 
and  innerbark  possess  medicinal  qualities. 


TILIACEAE.    LINDEN  FAMILY. 

A  family  of  about  thirty-five  genera  and  245  species,  widely 
distributed  in  warm  and  tropical  regions,  a  few  in  the  temperate 


Genus  TII,IA. 

A  genus  of  about  twelve  species,  only  one  of  which  is  found 
in  Minnesota.  They  are  all  handsome,  valuable  trees,  with 
soft  white  wood. 

Leaves  alternate,  more  or  less  heart-shaped,  often  soft  and 
downy.  Flowers  with  five  spatulate,  oblong  petals,  cream  col- 
ored, in  small  cymes  or  clusters,  hanging  on  an  axillary,  slender 
peduncle,  which  is  attached  to  a  long,  slender  and  thin  leaf-like 
bract.  Fruit  a  small  globular  nut,  one-celled,  one  or  two 
seeded,  attached  to  the  leaf-like  bract  and  ripening  in  autumn. 
The  flowers  are  fragrant,  and  yield  a  large  quantity  of  clear, 
white,  delicately  flavored  honey.  The  European  Linden  (T. 
vulgaris)  is  mentioned  here  as  being  one  of  promising  value 
for  cultivation  in  this  section. 

Tilia  ameticana.     Basswood.     American   Linden.     White 
Wood.     Beetree. 

Leaves  large,  alternate,  nearly  round  or  more  or  less  heart- 
shaped,  commonly  oblique  at  the  base,  serrate  abruptly  pointed, 
green  on  both  sides  and  glabrous,  or  nearly  so.  Flowers  yel- 
lowish-white, conspicuous,  fragrant,  appearing  in  June.  Tree 
large,  often  attaining  a  height  of  seventy  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  three  feet.  The  bark  of  the  trunk  is  furrowed,  and  its  light 

23 


254 


TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Plate 


Tilia   americana.     Basswocd. 


i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Diagram  of  flower.  3. 
A  flower  with  two  sepals  and  two  petals  removed.  4.  A  cluster  of  stamens 
with  their  petalpid  scale,  enlarged.  5.  A  stamen,  enlarged.  6.  Pistil, 
showing  longitudinal  section  of  ovary,  enlarged.  7.  Cross  section  of  ovary, 
enlarged.  8.  Cluster  of  fruit  separated  from  bract.  9.  Cross  section  of 
fruit.  10.  Embryo,  showing  s-lobed  cotyledons. 


BASSWOOD.  355 

brown  surface  is  broken  into  small,  thin  scales.  The  bark  on 
the  young  growth  is  light  gray,  and  gradually  becomes  dark  and 
finally  brown.  Very  few  varieties  of  this  species  are  cultivated. 

Distribution. — It  is  found  from  New  Brunswick  west  to 
Assiniboia  and  south  to  Georgia  and  Texas.  In  Minnesota  the 
Basswood  is  generally  common  throughout  the  state,  and  is 
very  abundant  in  the  Big  Woods. 

Propagation. — The  Basswood  is  generally  grown  from  the 
seeds,  which  even  when  stratified  and  exposed  to  frost  the  first 
winter  will  often  fail  to  start  until  a  year  from  the  following 
spring.  It  may  also  be  grown  from  layers,  and  from  cuttings 
of  the  younger  wood  by  using  the  solar  pit.  It  sprouts  readily 
from  the  stump  if  cut  in  winter,  and  renews  itself  very  satis- 
factorily in  this  way.  It  may  also  be  grafted. 

Properties  of  wood. — Light,  soft,  tough,  close  grained,  com- 
pact and  easily  worked.  The  sapwood  is  very  thick,  and  when 
properly  seasoned  is  nearly  white  in  color;  but  generally  it 
can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  light  brown  heartwood. 
It  warps  badly  when  exposed  to  weather,  and  rots  quickly  when 
in  contact  with  moisture.  The  specific  gravity  is  0.4525;  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  28.20  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Basswood  is  a  good  street  and  lawn  tree  in  suita- 
ble locations,  taking  on  a  very  beautiful  form,  but  is  not  nearly 
so  much  used  for  this  purpose  as  it  should  be.  It  is  very  hardy, 
and  resists  drouth  well,  and  is  desirable  in  timber  plantings  in 
this  section.  Newly  transplanted  street  trees  of  this  species 
are  liable  to  injury  from  sunscald  in  this  section  until  they  are 
well  established  and  for  this  reason  should  have  their  trunks 
protected  from  the  sun  for  several  years  after  they  are  set  out. 

The  wood  is  largely  sawed  into  lumber,  and  under  the  name 
of  whitewood  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  furniture, 
wooden  ware,  carriage  boxes,  etc.,  for  interior  finishing  and  a 
variety  of  other  purposes  such  as  churns  and  butter  workers, 
cheese  boxes,  bee  hives,  measures,  grape  and  fruit  baskets, 
boxes,  packing,  tool  handles,  map  rolls,  toothpicks,  musical  in- 
struments, penholders,  step  ladders,  baseball  bats  and  artificial 
limbs,  and  toys.  It  is  also  used  for  paper  pulp,  but  makes  an 
inferior  quality  of  paper.  The  inner  bark,  known  as  bast,  is 
occasionally  made  into  coarse  cordage  and  matting.  The  manu- 
facture of  these  latter  materials  from  European  Linden  has  been 


356  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

conducted  on  a  large  scale  in  Europe,  but  has  never  attained 
any  importance  in  the  United  States.  The  bast  fiber  is  ob- 
tained by  stripping  the  bark  from  the  trees  in  the  spring  and 
soaking  it  until  the  mucilage  that  binds  the  layers  together  is 
soaked  out. 

Tilia  vulgaris.   European  Basswood.   European  Linden. 

Native  of  northern  Europe,  forming  a  large  tree.  The  wood 
of  this  species  is  much  like  that  of  the  American  Basswood. 
The  leaves,  however,  are  smaller,  and  more  regularly  heart 
shaped.  The  tree  is  compact  in  habit,  and  has  numerous  short, 
rather  slender  reddish  twigs.  There  are  many  varieties.  This 
species  has  been  doing  very  well  for  about  seven  years  in  the 
forest  plantation  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  and 
seems  to  be  of  some  value  for  this  section.  The  varieties  of 
the  broad-leaved  European  Linden  (T.  Platyphyllos)  have  failed 
in  this  section. 


ELAEAGNACEAK    OLEASTER  FAMILY. 

Genus  EI,^AGNTJS. 

Shrubs  or  trees,  silvery-scurfy  or  stellate  pubescent  with  en- 
tire leaves  and  perfect  or  polygamous  flowers.  The  lower  part 
of  the  perianth  of  fertile  flowers  incloses  the  ovary,  and  ripens 
into  a  fleshy  or  mealy  mass  around  the  akene-like  true  fruit. 
The  upper  part  is  four-cleft  and  deciduous.  Corolla  none; 
stamens  four,  borne  on  the  tube  of  the  perianth. 

Elaeagnus  angustifolia.    Russian  Olive. 

Leaves  narrowly  lanceolate,  two  to  three  inches  long,  white- 
scurfy  on  lower  side,  stellate  pubescent  on  the  upper.  Perianth 
whitish  outside  and  yellowish  inside. 

Distribution. — Europe  and  Asia. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  which  grow  readily,  by  layers  and 
by  autumn-made  cuttings. 

Uses. — The  Russian  Olive  is  a  very  hardy  small  ornamental 
tree  of  very  pretty  habit,  chiefly  valued  for  the  contrast  it  gives 


RUSSIAN  OLIVE. 


357 


Plate  59.    Elwagnus  anguslifolia.     Russian    Olive. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  natural  si/e.  2.  Perfect  flower,  enlarged.  3. 
Perfect  flower  with  a  part  of  corolla  and  '  stamens  removed,  enlarged.  4. 
Upper  part  of  pistil  showing  style  and  stigma,  enlarged.  5.  Corolla,  dis- 
played, enlarged.  6.  Stamiuate  flower  with  a  portion  removed,  showing 
rudimentary  pistil,  enlarged.  7.  Portion  of  branch  bearing  fruit,  natural 
size.  8.  Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  natural  size.  9.  Embryo,  displayed. 
10.  Portion  oi  leaf  showing  stellate  pubescence  on  upper  surface,  u.  Gen- 
eral view  of  tree. 


358  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

to  plantings.  It  has  proved  a  very  satisfactory  tree  in  this 
section,  and  has  endured  drouth  well  at  the  Minnesota  Experi- 
ment Station  and  at  the  Coteau  Farm  in  Lyon  county,  Minne- 
sota, and  in  South  Dakota. 


OLEACEAE.    OLIVE  FAMILY* 

Genus  FRAXINUS. 

Leaves  opposite,  petioled,  odd-pinnate  with  three  to  fifteen 
toothed  or  entire  leaflets.  Flowers  small,  dioecious  or  polyga- 
mous and  apetalous  in  racemes  or  panicles  from  the  axils  of 
last  year's  leaves;  stamens  two;  ovary  two-celled.  Fruit  a 
flattened  samara,  winged  at  the  apex,  usually  one-seeded. 

Propagation. — By  seed,  which  may  be  sown  as  gathered  in 
autumn,  or  which  may  be  stratified  over  winter  and  sown  in 
in  the  spring.  A  good  way  to  keep  these  seeds  over  winter  is 
to  place  them  on  the  surface  of  a  garden  walk,  putting  a  box 
over  them  and  cutting  a  trench  around  the  box  to  keep  the 
water  away.  They  will  not  grow  if  kept  too  dry. 

Fraxinus  americana.    White  Ash. 

Leaves  with  seven  to  nine  leaflets,  which  are  usually  rounded 
at  the  base  and  generally  entire  in  outline  or  very  slightly  ser- 
rate. Flowers  dioecious,  appearing  with  or  rather  before  the 
leaves.  Fruit  ripe  in  autumn,  cylindrical  and  winged  at  one 
end  and  surrounded  at  the  base  by  the  persistent  calyx.  The 
bark  on  the  young  twigs  is  rather  dark,  nearly  smooth  and  free 
from  spots.  A  large  and  valuable  tree,  commonly  confounded 
in  this  section  with  the  Green  Ash  and  the  Red  Ash,  both  of 
which,  however,  are  smaller  trees  and  much  hardier,  produce 
seed  at  an  earlier  age  and  in  larger  quantities,  and  altogether 
are  better  adapted  to  prairie  planting  than  the  White  Ash. 

Distribution. — From  Nova  Scotia  west  to  northern  Minne- 
sota and  eastern  Nebraska  and  south  to  northern  Florida  and 
Texas.  In  Minnesota  the  White  Ash  appears  to  be  a  rare  tree. 
In  the  western  part  of  the  state  and  in  the  Dakotas  it  is  wholly 
replaced  by  Green  Ash,  or  what  seems  to  be  a  hopeless  mixture 
of  Green  Ash  and  Red  Ash, 


ASH. 


351) 


Plate  60.    Fraxinus  amcricana.    White  Ash. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Staminate  flower, 
enlarged.  4.  Pistillate  flower,  enlarged.  5.  Longitudinal  section  of  ovary, 
enlarged.  6.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  8.  Seed,  two-thirds  natural  size.  9. 
Embryo,  natural  size.  10.  Winter  buds,  one-balf  natural  size.  u.  Leaf, 
pne-half  natural  size, 


360  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

Propagation. — See  genus. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  coarse  grained  and 
tough,  although  brittle  when  old;  brown,  with  thick,  lighter  col- 
ored sapwood.  Specific  gravity  0.6543;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
40.77  pounds. 

Uses. — The  White  Ash  is  a  good  ornamental  tree  in  spite  of 
its  late  foliage,  and  is  desirable  for  timber  belts  in  the  milder 
portions  of  this  section,  but  on  the  prairies  does  not  grow  as 
fast  as  the  Green  Ash.  The  wood  is  of  less  value  when  grown 
here  than  when  grown  in  the  Northeastern  States.  It  is  used 
in  immense  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, carriages  and  furniture,  for  the  interior  finishing  of  build- 
ings, and  for  any  purpose  where  a  light-colored,  tough  wood 
is  needed.  It  is  manufactured  into  baseball  bats,  lawn  tennis 
racquets,  polo  mallets,  tool  handles,  crutches,  step  ladders,  tri- 
pods, churns,  tubs  and  pails.  The  wood  of  what  is  termed  sec- 
ond growth  trees,  i.  e.,  those  springing  up  after  the  original 
forest  has  been  removed  or  from  seed  scattered  in  open  fields, 
is  usually  superior  in  toughness  to  the  first  growth  or  large 
trees.  The  inner  bark  of  the  White  Ash  has  some  medicinal 
properties  and  is  used  in  homeopathic  practice. 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica.    (F.  pubescens. )    Red  Ash.  • 

Leaflets  oblong-lanceolate  to  ovate,  mostly  coarsely  serrate, 
velvety  pubescent  on  their  lower  surface  like  the  young  shoots. 
Flowers  dioecious;  calyx  present  and  persistent  in  the  fruit. 
This  tree  is  easily  distinguished  in  the  Eastern  States,  but  in 
this  section  it  merges  into  the  Green  Ash,  and  is  often  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  it. 

Distribution. — It  has  about  the  same  range  as  the  Green  Ash, 
but  is  less  common  west  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

Propagation. — See  genus. 

Properties  of  ivood. — Heavy,  hard,  rather  strong  and  brittle 
and  coarse  grained;  light  brown,  with  thick  lighter  colored  sap- 
wood  streaked  with  yellow.  Specific  gravity  0.6215;  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot  38.96  pounds. 

Uses. — In  this  section  the  Red  Ash  is  used  for  planting  the 
same  as  Green  Ash.  The  wood  is  often  substituted  for  that 
of  the  White  Ash,  which  is  much  more  valuable. 


ASH.  301 

Fraxinus  lanceolata.     (F.  viridis.}    Green  Ash. 

The  Green  Ash  closely  resembles  the  Red  Ash,  from  which 
it  is  distinguished  in  extreme  forms  by  its  glabrous  leaves  and 
branchlets  and  by  its  rather  narrower  and  shorter  and  usually 
more  serrate  leaves,  which  are  lustrous  and  bright  green  on  both 
surfaces.  However,  in  western  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas 
these  two  species  run  together,  and  are  often  indistinguishable. 
The  flowers  and  fruit  of  the  two  species  are  alike,  although 
many  forms  occur  on  each.  Professor  Sargent  regards  the 
Green  Ash  as  a  variety  of  the  Red  Ash. 

"The  bark  on  the  preceding  year's  growth  of  the  Green  Ash 
is  noticeably  lighter  colored  than  that  of  the  White  Ash,  and 
shows  many  more  rather  lighter  spots  or  warts.  The  leaflets 
are  usually  strongly  serrate.  The  leaves  are  bright  dark  green 
in  color,  although  somewhat  lighter  below.  The  young  growth 
of  new  wood  is  usually  smooth  and  glabrous,  while  the  mid 
veins  of  the  leaves  frequently  show  some  pubescence  on  the 
lower  side."  (L.  R.  Moyer.) 

Distribution. — From  the  shores  of  Lake  Champlain  west  to 
the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  eastern  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  south  to  Florida,  Texas  and  Arizona.  In  Min- 
nesota one  of  the  most  common  trees  along  water  courses  in 
the  western  part  of  the  state.  It  is  probable  that  about  all  the 
Ash  in  western  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  is  Green  Ash,  or 
a  hopeless  mixture  of  it  with  Red  Ash. 

Propagation. — The  Green  Ash  grows  readily  from  seeds,  as 
described  under  genus. 

Properties  of  -wood. — Hard,  strong,  brittle  and  rather  coarse 
grained;  it  is  brown,  with  thicker,  lighter  colored  sapwood. 
Specific  gravity  is  0.7117;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  44.35  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Green  Ash  is  one  of  the  hardiest  trees  known, 
and  is  very  valuable  for  windbreaks  and  ornamental  plantings 
on  the  prairies  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  and  through- 
out this  section  should  often  take  the  place  of  the  Cottonwood. 
Its  great  hardiness  against  cold  and  drouth,  its  easy  propaga- 
tion from  seed  and  its  rapid  growth  make  it  especially  fitted  for 
general  planting.  The  wood  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
White  Ash,  but  is  of  inferior  quality. 


362  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA.  ,,„,  ., 

Fraxinus  nigra.    (F.  sambucifolia.}    Black  Ash.    Swamp 
Ash.     Hoop  Ash. 

Flowers  dioecious  or  polygamous  without  calyx.  Leaflets 
seven  to  eleven,  oblong-lanceolate,  taper-pointed;  the  lateral 
sessile.  It  naturally  inhabits  cold,  wet  swamps,  and  the  low 
banks  of  streams  and  lakes.  Generally  a  small,  slender  tree. 
The  bruised  foliage  exhales  the  odor  of  Elder. 

Distribution. — Cold  swamps  and  low  banks  of  streams  from 
Newfoundland  to  Manitoba  and  south  to  Virginia  and  Arkansas. 
In  Minnesota  frequent  throughout  the  state. 

Propagation. — As  described  under  genus,  except  that  seeds  of 
this  are  different  from  those  of  other  native  species  in  not  grow- 
ing the  first  season  after  planting,  but  must  be  kept  stratified 
for  one  year. 

Properties  of  wood. — The  Black  Ash  is  heavy,  rather  soft,  not 
strong,  tough,  coarse  grained,  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil 
and  easily  separated  into  thin  layers.  It  is  dark  brown,  with 
thin  light  brown  or  often  nearly  white  sapwood.  The  specific 
gravity  is  0.6318;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  39.37  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Black  Ash  is  of  very  little  value  for  planting, 
but  might  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  in  wet  lands.  It  is 
a  slow  grower  and  short  lived  in  our  prairie  soils.  It  is  used 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  for  interior  finish- 
ing, barrel,  tub  and  pail  hoops,  baskets  and  chair  seats.  For 
this  latter  purpose  the  wood  is  split  in  as  many  layers  as  there 
are  annual  rings,  which  may  be  done  very  readily.  There  are 
peculiar  excrescences  popularly  known  as  knots  or  "burls"  that 
form  on  the  Black  Ash,  and  sometimes  these  grow  as  large  as 
3.  bushel  basket  or  larger.  They  are  a  sort  of  dwarfed  branches. 
It  has  been  found  that  when  these  "burls"  are  properly  sawed 
they  show  a  pretty  curly  grain,  and  make  very  desirable  veneer- 
ing for  furniture  and  for  interior  finishing,  and  they  are  sought 
after  for  this  purpose.  However,  in  this  section  the  "burls" 
seldom  if  ever  grow  to  sufficient  size  to  become  of  commercial 
importance. 


ASH. 


363 


Plate  61.    Fraxinus  nigra.     Black  Ash. 

i.  Flowering  branch  of  staminate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Flow- 
ering branch  of  pistillate  tree,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Pistillate  flower 
showing  rudimentary  stamens,  enlarged.  4.  Longitudinal  section  of  ovary, 
enlarged.  5.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6.  Longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  fruit,  one-half  natural  size.  7.  Embryo.  8,  Winter  branchlet,  one- 
half  natural  size, 


3(54  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 


BIGNONIACEAE.    BIGNONIA  FAMILY, 

Genus  CATALPA. 

A  genus  of  four  or  five  species  of  trees,  natives  of  the  West 
Indies,  North  America,  Japan  and  China.  Leaves  simple,  op- 
posite or  in  whorls  of  three.  Flowers  in  terminal  panicles; 
calyx  deeply  two-lipped;  corolla  inflated,  bell-shaped,  the  five- 
lobed  border  more  or  less  two-lipped  and  wavy.  Fruit  a  long 
slender  hanging  pod;  seed,  two-winged  with  silky  fringe. 

Catalpa  speciosa.     Hardy  Catalpa.     Western  Catalpa. 

Leaves  large,  opposite  or  in  threes,  heart-shaped  at  base, 
long-pointed,  thick,  firm,  dark  green  above,  falling  after  the 
first  severe  autumn  frost.  •  Flowers  appear  in  June  in  large 
panicles,  very  conspicuous  and  pretty;  corolla  about  two  inches 
long,  nearly  white,  faintly  spotted,  the  lower  lobes  notched; 
calyx  purple.  Fruit  nine  to  twenty  inches  long,  about  one-half 
inch  in  diameter  at  the  middle  and  tapering  towards  both  ends. 
It  ripens  in  autumn,  generally  remains  on  the  tree  until  spring, 
and  then  splits  into  two  concave  valves.  The  seed  is  light 
brown,  about  an  inch  long  and  one-third  of  an  inch  wide;  the 
wings  are  rounded  at  the  ends  and  terminate  with  a  fringe  of 
silky  hairs.  The  ends  of  the  branches  die  in  winter  without 
forming  a  terminal  bud.  A  large  and  important  tree  in  the 
forests  within  its  range,  where  it  attains  a  height  of  over  100 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  to  four  and  one-half  feet.' 

Distribution. — Borders  of  streams  and  lakes  and  fertile  and 
inundated  bottom  lands  in  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana,  west- 
ern Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  southeastern  Missouri  and  north- 
eastern Arkansas. 

Propagation. — By  seeds,  and  it  is  said  by  cuttings. 

Properties  of  wood. — Soft,  light,  not  strong,  coarse  grained, 
very  durable  in  contact  with  soil.  Specific  gravity  0.4165; 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  25.96  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Hardy  Catalpa  is  not  a  very  hardy  tree  in  this 
section,  and  probably  most  of  the  specimens  of  it  growing  north 
of  central  Iowa  are  more  or  less  injured  by  our  winters;  but 
they  often  hold  on  well  in  favorable  locations  as  far  north  as  St. 
Paul  and  Minneapolis,  and  form  good  small  trees.  They  are 


HARDY  CATALPA. 


365 


Plate  62.    Catalpa  speciosa.    Hardy  Catalpa. 

i.  Panicle  of  flowers,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Carolla,  displayed, 
showing  stamens,  one-half  natural  size.  3.  Single  fruit,  one-half  natural 
size.  4.  Seed,  one-half  natural  size.  5.  Longitudinal  section  of  seed,  one- 
half  natural  size. 


366  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

occasionally  killed  to  the  ground,  but  generally  renew  them- 
selves by  sprouts  from  the  roots.  The  Catalpa  is,  however, 
unfit  for  a  street  tree  in  Minnesota;  but  may  often  be  used  in 
protected  locations  in  parks  and  lawns,  where  it  is  valuable  for 
variety  in  foliage  and  for  its  beautiful  flower  clusters.  It  is  of 
remarkably  rapid  growth  when  young  and  has  been  used  in 
some  of  the  most  successful  tree  plantings  that  have  been  made 
in  Kansas  and  southern  Iowa.  The  wood  is  used  for  railway 
ties,  fence  posts  and  rails,  and  occasionally  for  furniture  and 
inside  finish  of  houses. 

The  Hardy  or  Western  Catalpa  was  for  a  long  time  con- 
founded with  the  Catalpa  of  the  Eastern  States  (C.  bignonioides) , 
which  is  not  nearly  so  hardy. 


CAPRIFOLIACEAK    HONEYSUCKLE  FAMILY. 

A  family  of  a  few  hundred  species,  including  such  well-known 
plants  as  the  common  Elder  (Sambucus),  the  Snowberry  (Sym- 

phoricarpus)  and  the  Honeysuckle  (Lonicera). 

I 

Genus  VIBURNUM. 

Small  trees  or  shrubs  with  simple  opposite  leaves.  Flowers 
perfect  or  neutral;  calyx  equally  five-toothed,  persistent;  corolla 
five-lobed;  stamens  five;  ovary  inferior,  one-celled.  Fruit  a 
dry  or  fleshy  one-seeded  drupe;  seed  flattened.  This  genus 
includes  the  well-known  Snowball,  which  is  a  sterile  form  of 
the  Highbush  Cranberry  (Viburnum  opulus). 

Viburnum  lentago.     Sheepberry.     Black  Haw.     Nanny- 
berry. 

Leaves  ovate-acuminate,  petioles  usually  winged.  Flowers 
perfect,  in  flat  clusters  from  three  to  five  inches  across,  slightly 
fragrant,  appearing  the  latter  part  of  May  or  first  of  June  in 
this  section;  corolla  cream-colored  or  nearly  white,  one-fourth 
inch  across  when  open;  filament  thick;  stigma  broad.  Fruit 
borne  in  drooping  clusters,  oval,  about  one-half  inch  long, 


SHEEPBERRY. 


307 


Plate  63.     Viburnum  lentago.     Sheepberry. 

i.  Flowering  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  2.  Diagram  of  flower.  3. 
Flower,  enlarged.  4.  Longitudinal  section  of  flower,  the  corolla  and  sta- 
mens removed,  enlarged.  5.  Fruiting  branch,  one-half  natural  size.  6. 
Longitudinal  section  of  fruit,  natural  size.  7.  Longitudinal  section  of 
seed.  8.  Side  view  of  stone.  9.  Winter  branchlet,  one-half  natural  size. 


3G8  TREES  OF  MINNESOTA. 

sweet,  juicy,  black  or  dark  blue,  thick-skinned,  covered  with  a 
glaucous  bloom,  ripens  in  September.  Within  our  range  a 
broad  bush  but  occasionally  a  small  tree. 

Distribution. — Quebec  to  the  Saskatchewan,  and  south  to 
Georgia  and  Missouri.  Usually  found  in  moist  locations,  es- 
pecially along  river  and  lake  shores,  but  not  uncommon  in 
thickets. 

Propagation. — By  seed  and  by  layers.  The  seeds  should  be 
stratified  over  winter  before  planting  and  often  remain  in  the 
soil  a  year  before  starting. 

Properties  of  wood. — Heavy,  hard  and  close  grained.  Specific 
gravity  0.7303;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  45.51  pounds. 

Uses. — The  Sheepberry  is  a  good  hardy  ornamental  shrub  for 
park  and  lawn  planting.  It  is  esteemed  for  the  abundance  of 
its  beautiful  flowers,  its  vigorous  growth,  compact  habit  and 
its  lustrous  foliage,  which  takes  on  brilliant  colors  in  autumn. 


PART  III. 

A   List   of  the   Forest  Trees 
of  the  United  States. 


A   LIST  OF  THE   MORE   IMPORTANT   TREES  OF   THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


White  Pine. 


Red  Pine 

Pitch  Pine  

Jack  Pine 

^ongleaf  Pine  . . 
Shortleaf  Pine  . . 
Cuban  Pine 

loblolly  Pine  . . . 


Spruce  Pine 
Scrub  Pine 
Bull  Pine 
Rock  Pine 

Jeffrey  Pine 

Pine 


Monterey  Pine  ........ 

Silver  Pine  ............ 

Sugar  Pine  ............ 


Pinus  strobus 


Pin  us  resinosa. 


Pinus  rigida 
Pinus  divaricata 

Pinus  palustris 
Pinus  echinaia  : 
Pinus  heterophylla 

Pinus  taeda ... 


Pinus  glabra 


Pinus  virginiana  ...... 

Pinus  ponderosa  ....... 

Pinus  ponder  osa  scopu 
lorum  ............... 

Pin  us  jejfreyi  .......... 


Pinus  murrayana 

Pinus  radiata 

Pinus  monticola 

Pin  us  la  m  berlia  na  


Minnesota  and  Iowa  to  the 
New  England  States  and 
Georgia,  Manitoba  to  New- 
foundland. 

Minnesota  to  New  England 
and  Pennsylvania,  Manitoba 
and  Newfoundland. 

New  Brunswick  to  Georgia, 
Ontario  and  Kentucky. 

Minnesota  to  New  Brunswick, 
Hudson  Bay,  and  northwest 
to  Mackenzie  River  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts  :  Virginia  to  Texas. 

New  York  to  Florida,  Illinois, 
Missouri  and  Texas. 

Southern  and  southeastern 
coast  regions:  South  Carol- 
ina to  Florida  and  l,ouisiana. 

Southeastern  and  Gulf  States: 
New  Jersey  to  Texas  and 
Arkansas  to  Tennessee. 

South  Carolina  to  Florida  and 


New  York  to  South  Carolina, 
Indiana  and  Alabama. 

British  Columbia  to  Mexico, 
Montana  and  Texas. 

Rocky  Mountains  to  Nebraska 

and  Montana  to  Colorado. 
California:    eastern  slopes  of 

Sierra  Nevadas  and  Oregon. 
Alaska  to  California,  Montana 

and  New  Mexico. 
South  California  coast. 
British  Columbia    to    Califor- 

nia. 
Western  Pacific  slope:  Oregon 

to  California. 


372     FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


A  UST  OF  THE  MORR   IMPORTANT  TREES   OF    THE    UNITED 
STATES.—  Continued. 


lumber  Pine  . 


Foxtail  Pine 

Bristle-cone  Pine 

Tamarack . . . 


Western  Larch 

Black  Spruce 

Red  Spruce 

White  Spruce 


Engelraann  Spruce. 
Sitka  Spruce 


Hemlock   . 


Western  Hemlock  . . 

Douglas  Spruce 

Balsam  Fir... 


Rowland  Fir 

White  Fir ... 


Amabilis  Fir 
Noble  Fir  . . . , 
Red  Fir  . . 


Pinus  flexilis. 


Pinus  balfouriana . 

Pinus  aristata 

Larix  laricina  . . 


Larix  occidentalis 
Picea  man' an  a  — 

Picea  rub  ens 

Picea  canadensis. . 


Picea  engelmanni 

Picea  sitchensis 

Tsuga  canadensis 


Tsuga  heterophylla  . . . 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia 
A  bies  balsamea 


A  bies  gra  ndis 

A  bies  concolor 

A  bies  amabilis 

A  bies  nobilis , 

A  bies  magnified , 


Eastern  slopes  Rocky  Moun- 
tains: Alberta  to  Texas,  and 
Utah,  Nevada,  Arizona  and 
California. 

California. 

Colorado  to  California. 

Minnesota  to  Illinois,  New- 
foundland and  Labrador, 
and  northwest  to  Great  Bear 
Lake  and  Mackenzie  River. 

Montana  to  Oregon  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia. 

Minnesota  to  North  Carolina, 
Hudson  Bay,  Mackenzie 
River  and  Rocky  Mountains. 

Nova  Scotia  to  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee. 

Minnesota  to  Maine,  Labrador 
and  Hudson  Bay,  and  Black 
Hills  to  Montana,  British 
Columbia  and  Alaska. 

Arizona  to  British  Columbia. 

Pacific  coast:  Alaska  to  Cali- 
fornia. 

Minnesota  to  Alleghany 
Mountains  and  south  to  Ala- 
bama; Nova  Scotia  and  On- 
tario. 

Alaska  to  California  and  Mon- 
tana. 

British  Columbia  to  California, 
Mexico,  Montana  to  Texas. 

Minnesota  and  Iowa  to  New- 
foundland, Virginia,  Lab- 
rador, Hudson  Bay  and 
northwest  to  Great  Bear 
Lake  legion  and  Rocky 
Mountains. 

Montana  to  Vancouver  Island 
and  California. 

Oregon  to  California,  Colorado 
and  New  Mexico. 

Oregon  to  British  Columbia. 

Washington  to  California. 

California:  Mount  Shasta  and 
western  slope  Sierra  Nev- 
adas. 


FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.      373 

A  UST  OF  THE  MORE   IMPORTANT  TREES   OF  THE    UNITED 
STATES.—  Continued. 


Bald  Cypress . . 
Big  Tree  


Redwood 

Incense  Cedar. 


Arborvitae 


Giant  Arborvitae  . . 

White  Cedar 

Port  Orford  Cedar 

Red  Juniper 


Rocky  M'nt'n  Juniper 

Pacific  Yew 

Butternut 

Black  Walnut... 


Pecan 

Bitternut 

Shagbark  Hickory 

Shellbark  Hickory.... 


Mocker  Nut 

Pignut  

Aspen  


Taxodium  distich um. 

Sequoia  washingto- 
niana  


Sequoia  sempervirens. 
Libocedrus  decurrens  . 

Thuja  occidentalis 


Thuja  plicata  

ChamcEcyparis  thy  aides 

Chamcecyparis  lawso- 
niana  


Juniperus  virginiana. . 
Juniper  us  scopulotum  . 

Taxus  brevifolia 

Juglans  cinerea 

Jtiglans  nigra 


Hicoria  pecan 

Hicoria  minima . 

Hicoria  ovata  

Hicoria  laciniosa . . . 

Hicoria  alba . . . 


Hicoria  glabra 

Populus  tremuloides. 


Delaware  to  Florida,  Texas 
and  Missouri. 

California :  western  slope 
Sierra  Nevadas. 

California  coast  ranges. 

Oregon  to  I,ower  California 
and  Nevada. 

Minnesota  to  l,ake  Winnipeg, 
James  Bay,  Illinois,  North 
Carolina,  New  Brunswick 
and  Nova  Scotia. 

Alaska  to  California  and  Mon- 
tana. 

Coast  region:  Maine  to  Flor,- 
ida,  and  Mississippi. 

Coast  region :  Oregon  to  Cal- 
ifornia. 

North  Dakota  to  New  Bruns- 
wick, Florida,  Texas,  Neb- 
raska and  Indian  Ter. 

Nebraska  and  Black  Hills  to 
Montana,  British  Columbia 
and  Arizona. 

California  to  British  Columbia 
and  Montana. 

Minnesota  and  South  Dakota 
to  New  Brunswick,  Georgia 
and  Arkansas. 

Minnesota  to  Ontario  and 
Massachusetts,  Florida  and 
Texas. 

Iowa  to  Indiana,  Alabama  and 
Mexico. 

Minnesota  to  Maine,  Florida 
and  Texas. 

Same  as  Bitternut. 

Iowa  to  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Indian  Ter. 

Ontario  to  Florida,  Missouri 
and  Texas. 

Maine  to  Florida,  Nebraska 
and  Texas. 

Alaska  to  I,abrador,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Missouri  and  Mexico. 


374      FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


A  UST   OF   THE    MORE  IMPORTANT  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES.—  Continued. 


Ivargetooth  Aspen  
Balm-of-Gilead  

Populus  grandidentata 
Populus  balsamifera.  .  . 

North  Dakota  to  Nova  Scotia, 
North    Carolina    and    Ten- 
nessee. 
Alaska  to  Newfoundland,  New 

Narrowleaf  Cottonw'd 

Black  Cottonwood  — 
Fremont  Cottonwood  . 

Populus  angustifolia  .  . 

Populus  trichocarpa  .  .  . 
Populus  fremontii  

Populus  deltoides 

York  and  Nevada. 
Assiniboia  to  Nevada,  Arizona, 
New  Mexico  and  Nebraska. 
Alaska  to  California. 
California  to  Colorado,  Texas 
and  Mexico. 
Quebec    to    Florida      Alberta 

White  Birch  

Betula  populifolia  

and  New  Mexico. 
Nova  Scotia  to  Delaware  and 
I,ake  Ontario. 
Alaska  to  I^abrador  Pennsyl- 

River Birch  
Yellow  Birch 

Betula  nigra  

vania  and  Washington. 
Minnesota    to  Massachusetts, 
Florida  and  Texas. 
Minnesota  and  Western  On- 

Sweet Birch 

Betula  lento, 

tario      to      Newfoundland, 
North    Carolina    and    Ten- 
nessee. 
Rainy  River  to  Newfoundland 

Blue  Beech 

Tennessee  and  Florida. 
Minnesota  to  Quebec  Florida 

Beech               

and  Texas. 
Wisconsin    to    Nova     Scotia 

Goldenl'f  Chinquapin 
Chinquapin  
Chestnut  

Castanopsis  chryso- 
phylla  
Castanea  pumila  

Florida  and  Texas. 

Oregon  to  California. 
Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  Mis- 
souri and  Texas. 
Maine  to  Delaware   Michigan 

White  Oak  

California  White  Oak 
Post  Oak  

Quercus  alba  
Quercus  lobata  

and  Mississippi. 
Minnesota  to  Maine,   Florida 
and  Texas. 
California. 
Massachusetts      to      Florida, 

Bur  Oak  
Chestnut  Oak     

Quercus  macrocarpa.  .  . 
Quercus  prinus  

Nebraska  and  Texas. 
Nova    Scotia    and    Maine    to 
Manitoba,   Montana,    Penn- 
sylvania and  Texas. 
In  mountains  from  Maine  to 

Chinquapin  Oak  

Quercus  acuminata  — 

Alabama. 
New  York  to  Alabama,  Neb- 
raska and  Texas. 

FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.      375 


A  UST  OF  THE   MORE   IMPORTANT  TREES  OF    THE    UNITED 
STATES.—  Continued. 


Swamp  White  Oak 

Cow  Oak  

I,ive  Oak 


Canyon  I,ive  Oak  . 
Red  Oak  . . 


Scarlet  Oak 


Yellow  Oak 
Spanish  Oak  . . . 
Pin  Oak 

Water  Oak 

Tanbark  Oak  . . 
Cedar  Elm 

Slippery  Elm  . 
White  Elm .... 

Cork  Elm 

Wing  Elm  — 
Hackberry  .... 


Red  Mulberry 


Osage  Orange. 
Magnolia 


Cucumber-tree 


Quercus  platanoides 
Quercus  michauxii. 
Quercus  virginiana 


Quercus  chrysolepis. 
Quercus  rubra 


Quercus  coccinea 

Quercus  velutina 

Quercus  digitata 
Quercus  palustris 

Quercus  nigra 

Quercus  densiflora .  . 
Ulmus  crassifolia  .. . 

Ulmus  pubescens 

Ulmus  americana. . . 

Ulmus  racemosa . . . 


Ulmus  alata 

Celtis  occidentalis 


Morus  rubra. 


Toxylon  pomiferum  . . 
Magnolia  foetida 

Magnolia  acuminata. 


Maine  to  Georgia,  Iowa  and 
Arkansas. 

Delaware  to  Florida,  Texas 
and  Missouri. 

Shores  from  Virginia  to  Flor- 
ida, Texas,  Mexico,  Central 
America  and  Cuba. 

Oregon  to  Mexico. 

Minnesota  to  Nova  Scotia, 
Georgia  and  Kansas. 

Minnesota  to  Maine,  Neb- 
raska, Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina." 

Minnesota  to  Maine,  Florida 
and  Texas. 

New  Jersey  to  Florida,  Illi- 
nois and  Texas. 

Wisconsin  to  Massachusetts, 
Virginia,  Kansas  and  Indian 
Territory. 

Delaware  to  Florida,  Missouri 
and  Texas. 

Oregon  to  California. 

Mississippi  to  Arkansas  and 
Mexico. 

North  Dakota  to  Quebec,  Flor- 
ida and  Texas. 

Newfoundland  to  Rocky 
Mountains,  Florida  and 
Texas. 

Minnesota  to  Quebec,  New 
Hampshire,  Nebraska,  Mis- 
souri and  Tennessee. 

Virginia  to  Florida,  Missouri 
and  Texas. 

Quebec  to  Massachusetts,  Flor- 
ida, Texas,  Washington  and 
Nevada. 

Massachusetts  and  Vermont  to 
Florida,  Nebraska,  South 
Dakota  and  Texas. 

Arkansas  to  Texas. 

North  Carolina  to  Florida, 
Arkansas  and  Texas. 

New  York  to  Illinois,  Alabama 
and  Arkansas. 


376     FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


A  LIST  OF  THE  MORE    IMPORTANT  TREES   OF   THE   UNITED 
STATES.— Continued. 


Tulip-tree 


Sassafras . . . 
Sweet  Gum. 


Sycamore 

Black  Cherry  . . . 
Honey  Locust. .. 

Coffeetree 


LOCUSt 


American  Holly 

Oregon  Maple  . . 
Sugar  Maple 


Silver  Maple 


Red  Maple 

Boxelder 

Ohio  Buckej-e . . . 
Yellow  Buckeye 

Basswood 

White  Basswood 

Black  Gum 

Cotton  Gum.  .. 


Liriodendron  tulipifera 

Sassafras  sassafras .... 

Liquidambar  styra- 
ciflua 

Platanus  occidentalis  . . 

Prunus  serotina 

Gleditsia  triacanthos. . . 

Gymnocladus  dioicus  . . 
\ 

Robinia  pseudacacia . . . 


Ilex  opaca  . . 


Acer  macrophyllum  . 
Acer  saccharum 

Acer  sacchai  inum 


Acer  rubrum 

Acer  negundo 

Aesculus  glabra 

Aesculus  octandra 

Tilia  americana 

Tilia  heterophylla 

Nyssa  sylvatica 

Nyssa  aquatica 


Vermont  and  Rhode  Island  to 
Florida,  Mississippi,  Mich- 
igan and  Arkansas. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida, 
Iowa  and  Texas. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  Mis- 
souri and  Texas. 

Maine  to  Florida,  Nebraska 
and  Texas. 

North  Dakota  to  Nova  Scotia, 
Florida  and  Texas. 

Minnesota  to  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York,  Georgia, 
Nebraska  and  Texas.  •  _  • 

Minnesota  to  New  York,  Neb- 
raska, Indian  Territory  and 
Tennessee. 

Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  Min- 
nesota, Arkansas  and  Indian 
Territory. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  In- 
diana, Missouri  and  Texas. 

Alaska  to  California 

North  Dakota  to  Newfound- 
land, Texas  and  Florida. 

Minnesota  and  South  Dakota 
to  New  Brunswick,  Florida 
and  Indian  Territory. 

Lake  of  the  Woods  to  New 
Brunswick.  Florida  and 
Texas. 

Vermont  to  Florida,  Saskat- 
chewan and  Texas. 

Pennsylvania  to  Alabama, 
Iowa  and  Indian  Territory. 

Pennsylvania  to  Alabama, 
Iowa  and  Texas. 

New  Brunswick  to  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Texas,  Assiniboia. 

Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  Illi- 
nois and  Alabama. 

Maine  to  Florida,  Michigan 
and  Texas. 

Virginia  to  Florida,  Illinois 
and  Texas. 


FOREST  TREES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.      377 


A  UST  OF  THE   MORE   IMPORTANT  TREES   OF  THE   UNITED 
STATES.— Continued. 


Persimmon  
Blue  Ash  

Diospyros  virginiana  .  . 
Fraxinus    quadrangu- 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  Iowa 
and  Texas. 

Black  Ash           

lata  

Minnesota    to   Michigan,   Ar- 
kansas and  Alabama. 
Manitoba    to    Newfoundland 

White  Ash  
Red  Ash  

Fraxinus  americana  .  . 

Fraxinus  pennsylva- 
nica  

Arkansas  and  Virginia. 
Minnesota  to  Newfoundland, 
Texas  and  Florida. 

North  Dakota  to  New  Bruns- 
wick, Kansas,  Alabama  and 
Florida. 
Vermont     to     Saskatchewan 

Oregon  Ash     

River,   Florida,   Texas    and 
Arizona. 
Washington  to  California. 

Catalpa          

Catalpa  catalpa 

Georgia      Florida      Alabama 

Hardy  Catalpa 

Catalpa  speciosa 

and  Mississippi. 
Indiana    to    Tennessee,    Mis- 

souri and  Texas. 

GLOSSARY. 


Accretion.     Growth  or  formation  by  external  additions  to  the  tree. 

Acorn.     The  fruit  of  an  oak. 

Acuminate.     Taper-pointed    or    long-pointed,     (e.    g.    leaves    of 

Willow.) 

Acute.     Pointed,     (e.  g.  leaves  of  Cork  Elm.) 
Albumen.     Food  stored  up  in  seed  with  embryo;    endosperm. 
Alternate  leaves.     A  single  leaf  at  a  node;    not  opposite,     (e.  g. 

Willow.) 

Altimeter.     An  instrument  for  taking  grades,  level  and  heights. 
Angle  mirror.   )   Instruments  for  turning  of  angles  in  subdividing 
Angle  prism.    )  land. 

Annual.     Yearly;    a  plant  which  reaches  maturity  and  dies  at  the 

end  of  a  single  season,     (e.  g.  Pea,  Wheat.) 
Annual  ring.     The  layer  of  wood  formed  each  year.     (Page  n.) 
Anther.     The  pollen-containing  sac;    enlarged  part  of  stamen. 
Apetalous.     Without  corolla,     (e.  g.  Soft  Maple,  Oak.) 
Arboreous.     Tree-like. 
Assimilation.    In  plants,  the  production  of  organic  matter  from 

inorganic  matter. 
Axil.     The  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  leaf-blade,  bract, 

petiole,  pedicle  or  peduncle,  with  the  branch  or  stalk  from 

which  it  springs. 
Back-firing.     The  burning,  under  control,  of  material  in  front  of 

a  fire  to  prevent  its  spreading. 
Bark.     A  general  term  applied  to  all  the  tissues  outside  of  the 

wood  proper.     (Fig.  i.) 
Basal.     Attached  to  the  base. 
Basal  area.     The  cross-sectional  area  of  a  tree  near  the  ground, 

usually  taken  about  four  and  one-half  feet  above  ground  to 

avoid  the  excessive  swelling  of  the  root  buttresses. 
Bast.     The  woody  fibrous  tissue  of  the  inner  bark.     (Page  355.) 


GLOSSARY.  379 

Baummesser.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  height  of  the 
trees,  height  and  diameter  at  any  part  on  the  stem  of  a 
standing  tree. 

Berry.  Botanically  a  fleshy  fruit,  (e.  g.  Grape,  Currant.) 
Commonly  applied  to  many  kinds  of  fruits,  (e.  g.  Straw- 
berry, Mulberry.) 

Blade  of  a  leaf.     The  expanded  portion;    the  wings. 

Blight.  The  dying  without  apparent  cause  of  the  tenderer  parts 
of  plants. 

Board-foot.  The  unit  of  board  measure;  equivalent  to  a  board 
12  in.  x  12  in.  x  I  in.  One  cubic  foot  is  considered  as 
equivalent  to  ten  board  feet,  allowing  for  waste  in  working. 

B.  M.     Abbreviation  lor  board  measure,     (q.  v.) 

Board-measure.  (B.  M.)  The  system  used  by  lumbermen  in 
which  the  board-foot  (q.  v.)  is  the  unit. 

Bract.     A  much  reduced  leaf. 

Broad-leaved  trees.  Applies  to  trees  whose  leaves  have  a  broad 
flat  surface,  unlike  the  needle  or  awl-shaped  leaves  of  the 
conifers. 

Budding.  The  operation  and  process  of  inserting  a  bud  with  the 
intention  that  it  shall  grow. 

Bud-division.  A  term  including  all  methods  of  propagation  ex- 
cept by  seed.  (e.  g.  Grafting,  Layering,  etc.) 

Bud-variety.  A  strange  variety  or  form  appearing  without  obvi- 
ous cause  upon  a  plant  or  in  cuttings  or  layers;  a  sport. 
A  bud-variety  springs  from  a  bud  in  distinction  from  a 
seed-variety,  which  springs  from  a  seed. 

Callus.  The  new  and  protruding  tissue  which  forms  over  a 
wound  as  over  the  end  of  a  cutting. 

Calyx.     Outer  circle  of  perianth,  generally  inconspicuous. 

Cambium.  In  trees  and  shrubs,  the  layer  of  new  growing  tissue 
between  the  bark  and  wood. 

Cants.  A  term  used  in  mills  to  designate  the  pieces  cut  from  the 
sides  of  a  log  and  which  are  to  be  again  cut  into  quarter- 
sawed  lumber.  It  is  sometimes  also  applied  to  the  squared 
centerpiece  of  the  log. 

Carbon  dioxide.  A  gas  composed  of  one  part  of  carbon  to  two 
parts  of  oxygen;  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Carpel.  A  simple  pistil,  or  one  of  the  divisions  of  a  compound 
pistil. 


380  GLOSSARY. 

Catkin.  A  scaly  spike-like  dense  flower  cluster,  (e.  g.  Willow, 
Birch.) 

Cell.     The  anatomical  unit  of  living  tissues. 

Chlorophyll.     The  green  coloring  matter  of  plants;    leaf-green. 

dilate.     Hairy  on  the  margin. 

Cleft  leaf.  Cut  into  lobes  somewhat  more  than  half  the  depth  of 
wings,  (e.  g.  Silver  Maple.) 

Compass.  A  magnetic  needle  used  to  determine  directions  in  the 
woods. 

Compound  leaf.  One  in  which  the  blade  or  wings  are  composed 
of  more  than  one  part.  (e.  g.  Ohio  Buckeye,  Mountain 
Ash.) 

Cone.     The  flower  or  fruit  of  a  conifer. 

Conifer.     A  member  of  the  Pine  Family  or  Coniferse. 

Coniferous.     Cone-bearing. 

Cooperage.  The  business  of  making  wooden  vessels,  as  casks, 
barrels,  tubs. 

Cordate.     Heart-shaped. 

Corolla.  Inner  series  of  the  perianth;  generally  distinguished 
from  the  calyx  by  being  of  a  color  other  than  green. 

Corymb.  A  flat-topped  flower  cluster,  in  which  the  outer  flowers 
open  first,  (e.  g.  Mountain  Ash.) 

Cotyledon.     One  of  the  leaves  of  the  embryo;    a  seed  leaf. 

Cross  staff  head.  An  instrument  for  turning  off  angles  in  sur- 
veying land,  consisting  of  an  octagonal  brass  box  with  slits 
in  the  faces  for  sighting  through. 

Crowded.  Said  of  trees  when  so  closely  grown  that  the  develop- 
ment of  their  lateral  branches  is  interfered  with.  (Page 
129.) 

Crown  of  tree.     See  tree-crown. 

Cuttage.  The  practice  or  process  of  multiplying  plants  by  means 
of  cuttings. 

Cuttings.  A  piece  of  a  leaf,  branch,  stem  or  root  which  when  in- 
serted in  moist  material  is  capable  of  sending  out  roots 
and  forming  a  new  plant;  a  slip.  (Page  86.) 

Cycle.     One  of  the  circles  of  a  flower. 

Cymes.     A  flower  cluster  in  which  the  central  flowers  open  first 

Deciduous.     Falling  off;    said  of  leaves  that  fall  in  autumn. 

Dehiscent,     Said  of  fruits  that  open  at  regular  lines. 


GLOSSARY.  381 

Delinquent  tax  lands.  Lands  on  which  taxes  have  not  been  paid. 
They  are  offered  for  sale  at  stated  times  after  public  notice, 
and  tracts  which  find  no  buyers  revert  to  the  state. 

Dentate.     Toothed,  with  teeth  pointing  outward  not  forward. 

Diadelphous.     Said  of  stamens  when  united  into  two  groups. 

Dibber.     A  pointed  instrument  used  for  making  holes. 

Dicotyledon.     One  of  the  class  of  plants  with  two  seed  leaves. 

Dicotyledonous.     Having  two  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves. 

Digitate.     See  palmate. 

Dioecious.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  borne  on  different 
plants. 

Distillation  product.  The  substance  obtained  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  a  compound. 

Divided.  Said  of  leaves  when  the  wings  are  cut  into  divisions 
down  to  base  or  midrib. 

Division.     See  bud-division. 

Drupe.  A  fruit  with  hard  pit  (endocarp)  and  soft  exterior 
(exocarp).  (e.  g.  Plum,  Cherry,  Peach.) 

Dry-rot.     A  kind  of  decay  in  wood.     (Page  177.) 

Dust-blanket.  A  layer  of  loose  earth  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Embryo.     The  minature  plant  in  the  seed. 

Erosion.     Wearing  away. 

Evergreen.  Holding  leaves  over  winter  until  new  leaves  appear 
or  longer. 

Family.  In  botanical  classification,  a  group  of  plants  thrown  to- 
gether because  of  some  natural  common  resemblances. 
Sometimes  used  synonymously  with  order. 

Filament.     The  stalk  of  the  stamen. 

Firebreak.  An  opening,  plowed  strip  of  land,  or  anything  which 
prevents  the  spread  of  fires  in  forests  or  elsewhere.  Page 
119.) 

Firefalls.  Applied  to  areas  where  the  trees  have  fallen  owing  to 
their  roots  having  been  burned  off. 

Flower.  A  part  of  the  plant  especially  modified  for  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  plant  by  seed. 

Forest.     A  dense  growth  of  trees. 

Forest  floor.  The  decayed  leaves  and  twigs  which  cover  the  soil 
in  forests.  (Page  24.) 


382  GLOSSARY. 

Frost-hardy.  Said  of  trees,  the  new  growth  of  which  is  not  easily 
killed  by  frost. 

Frost-tender.  Said  of  trees,  the  new  growth  of  which  is  easily 
killed  by  frost. 

Fruit.     The  seed-containing  area  derived  from  a  single  flower. 

Fungi.     Plural  of  fungus. 

Fungous.     Pertaining  to  fungi. 

Fungus.  A  flowerless  plant  devoid  of  chlorophyll  and  drawing 
its  nourishment  from  living  organisms  or  decayed  organic 
matter. 

Genera.     Plural  of  genus. 

Generic  name.  The  name  of  the  genus  to  which  the  plant  be- 
longs, and  which  with  the  name  of  the  species  forms  the 
scientific  name  of  the  plant. 

Genus.  In  botanical  classification,  a  group  of  plants  having  sev- 
eral or  many  natural  common  resemblances;  a  division  of 
a  family. 

Germination.  The  act  or  process  by  which  a  seed  or  spore  gives 
rise  to  a  new  and  independent  plant. 

Glabrous.     Smooth,  not  pubescent. 

Glauber  salts.     Sodium  sulphate. 

Glaucous.  Covered  with  a  fine  white  powder  as  that  on  a  cab- 
bage leaf. 

Graftage.  A  syste.m  of  propagation  comprising  all  methods  by 
which  plants  are  grown  on  roots  of  other  plants. 

Grafting.     The  operation  of  inserting  a  cion  in  a  plant. 

Grafting  Wax.  A  protective  substance  used  in  covering  the 
junction  of  a  graft  with  the  stock,  or  for  the  covering  of 
wounds.  Bailey's  formula  for  a  reliable  wax: — Resin,  four 
parts  (by  weight);  beeswax,  two  parts;  tallow,  one  part. 
Melt  together  and  pour  into  a  pail  of  cold  water.  Then 
grease  the  hands  and  pull  the  wax  until  it  is  nearly  white. 

Hardy.     Able  to  withstand  a  given  climate. 

Heeling-in.  The  operation  and  process  of  temporarily  covering 
the  roots  of  plants  to  preserve  them  until  wanted  for 
permanent  planting.  (Page  96.)  .'••"' 

Height  classes.  The  arrangement  of  trees  into  classes  according 
to  height. 

Herb.     A  plant  not  woody. 


GLOSSARY.  383 

Herbaceous.     Not  woody;    said  of  plants  that  die  to  the  ground 

each  year. 
Horticulture.     The    art    and    science    of    raising    fruits,    kitchen 

garden    vegetables,    flowers    and    ornamental    trees    and 

shrubs. 

Humus.     Decomposed  organic  matter  in  the  soil. 
Hybrid.     Plant  derived  from  a  cross  between  plants  of  different 

species. 
Hybridising.     The    operation    or    practice    of    crossing    between 

species. 
'Hypogynous.     Said    of   flowers   when    all    parts   are   free.     (e.    g. 

Buckeye). 

Hypsometer.     An  instrument  for  taking  heights  of  trees. 
Imbricated.     Overlapped. 
Inarching.     The    operation    and    process    of    uniting    contiguous 

plants  or  branches  while  the  parts  are  both  attached  to 

their  own  roots.     (Page  90.) 

Indehiscent.     Not  opening  at  regular  lines;    not  dehiscent. 
Indigenous.     Native,  i.  e.  growing  naturally  in  a  given  region. 
Inferior.     Said  of  ovary  when  all  the   floral  parts  are  attached 

above  it.     (e.  g.  Iowa  Crab.) 

Inflorescence.     A  flower  cluster;    mode  of  arrangement  of  flowers. 
Insecticide.     A  substance  employed  to  destroy  insects. 
Involucre.     A  bract  or  series  of  bracts  subtending  a  flower-cluster 

or  fruit-cluster. 
Irregular.     Said  of  flowers  when  the  separate  parts  of  each  cycle 

are  not  of  the  same  size  and  shape,     (e.  g.  Locust.) 
Jacob   staff.     A    pointed    staff   which    may    be    pushed    into    the 

ground  and  on  which  instruments  are  mounted  for  taking 

observations. 

Joinery.     The  art  of  framing  the  finishing  work,  making  perma- 
nent wooden  fittings  and  covering  rough  lumber. 
Kerf.     The  cut  made  by  the  saw,  or  the  width  of  such  cut. 
Lanceolate.     Said  of  leaves  when  from  four  to  six  times  as  long  as 

broad,  the  broadest  part  below  the  middle  and  tapering 

upward    or    both    upward    and    downward,     (e.    g.    Black 

Willow.) 

Larva,     (pi.  larvae)     The  worm-like  stage  of  insects. 
Layer.     A  shoot  which,  while  attached  to  the  plant,  takes  root 

at  one  or  more  places  and  forms  a  new  plant.     (Page  89.) 


384  GLOSSARY.  i:^\ 

Leaf-mould.     Decayed  leaves  and  other  organic  matter  constitut- 
ing the  forest  floor. 

Leaflet.     One  of  the  wing  divisions  of  a  compound  leaf. 
Leather  board.     A  material  made  from  wood  pulp  and  which  re- 
sembles leather  in  color  and  texture. 
Legume.     A    simple   pod    opening   by   both   ventral   and   dorsal 

sutures;    fruit  of  pea  family,     (e.  g.  Locust.) 
Leguminous.     Pertaining   to    the    family    Leguminosae;     said    of 

plants  bearing  legumes. 

Loam.     Friable,  mellow,  rich  soil  containing  much  humus. 
Lobe.     A  projection  or  division  of  a  leaf  not  more  than  half  the 

depth  of  the  wing. 
Lyrate.     A  pinnatifid  leaf  of  an  obovate  or  spatulate  outline  with 

the  end  lobe  large  and  roundish  and  the  lower  lobes  small, 

(e.  g.  Bur  Oak.) 
Manure.     Plant    food;     any    substance    which    promotes    plant 

growth. 
Monadelphous.     Said  of  stamens  when  united  by  their  filaments 

in  one  group. 

Mono.     Prefix  meaning  one. 
Monoecious.     Both  staminate  and  pistiHate  flowers  borne  on  the 

same  plant,     (e.  g.  Black  Walnut.) 
Mound-layering.     (Page  89.) 
Mulch.     Any  loose  material  that  protects  the  soil  from  frost  or 

evaporation. 
Muskeg.     A  term  commonly  applied  to  sphagnum  swamps  by  the 

Indians  and  woodsmen  of  northern  Minnesota. 
Narrow-leaved   trees.    Trees   with  needle   or   awl-shaped   leaves, 

which  expose  no  great  surface  to  the  light. 
Nursery.    A  plot  of  ground  set  apart  for  the  raising  of  plants 

that  are  to  be  transplanted  elsewhere.     An  establishment 

for  the  raising  of  plants. 
Obcordate.     The  reverse  of  cordate. 
Qblanceolate.    The  reverse  of  lanceolate. 

Oblong.     About  twice  as  long  as  broad  with  nearly  parallel  sides. 
Obovate.     The  reverse  of  ovate. 

Obtuse.     Blunt,  not  acute,     (e.  g.  leaflets  of  Locust.) 
Odd-pinnate.     Applied   to   pinnately    compound   leaves   having   a 

terminal  leaflet.      (e.  g.  Ash.) 


GLOSSARY.  385 

Open  grown.     Said  of  trees  when  not  grown  sufficiently  close  to 

other  trees  to  be  influenced  by  them. 
Ovary.     The   lower   or  enlarged   part   of  the   pistil   bearing  the 

ovules. 
Ovate.     About  twice  as  long  as  broad  and  tapering  from  near 

the  base  to  the  apex.     (e.  g.  leaves  of  Balm  of  Gilead.) 
Ovoid.     Egg-shaped. 
Ovule.     A  rudimentary  seed. 
Palmate.     Said  of  parts  originating  from  a  common  point,  as  the 

veins,  lobes  or  divisions  of  a  leaf.     (e.  g.  Leaflets  of  Ohio 

Buckeye.) 

Panicle.     A  loose  flower  cluster,     (e.  g.  White  Ash,  page  359.) 
Papilionaceous.     Butterfly-shaped,   applied  to   flowers  of  the   pea 

family,     (e.  g.  Locust,  page  334.) 

Paraboloid.     The  figure  of  revolution  formed  by  turning  a  parab- 
ola about  its  axis. 
Parasite.     A  plant  or  animal  that  lives  upon  and  obtains  its  food 

from  other  living  plants  or  animals. 
Parietal  placenta.     A  placenta  upon  the  wall  of  the  ovary,     (e.  g. 

Coffeetree,  page  332.) 
Parted.     Separated  nearly  to  the  base. 
Pedicel.     A  stalk  of  a  single  flower  of  a  flower  cluster. 
Peduncle.     A  stalk  of  a  solitary  flower  or  the  common  stalk  ~ef a 

flower  cluster. 
Pendulous.     Hanging. 
Penta.     Prefix,  meaning  five. 
Perennial.     A  plant  living  more  than  two  years. 
Perfect  flower.     One  having  both  essential  organs,  i.  e.  stamens 

and  pistil,     (e.   g.   Iowa  Crab,  page  313.) 
Perianth.     The  floral  envelopes. 
Pericarp.     The  ripened  ovary;    the  seed  vessel. 
Persistent.     Remaining  beyond  the  period  when  such  parts  gen- 
erally fall. 

Petal.     One  of  the  divisions  of  a  corolla. 
Petiole.     Leaf-stalk. 
Pinnate.     Parts  arranged  on  opposite  sides  of  a  main  axis.     (e. 

g.  Leaflets  of  Mountain  Ash.) 
Pinnatifid.     Pinnately  lobed  or  cleft,     (e.  g.  leaves  of  Red  Oak, 

page  296.) 

25 


38<3  GLOSSARY. 

Pinnule.  A  secondary  leaflet  in  a  pinnately  decompound  leaf, 
(e.  g.  Honey  Locust.) 

Pistil.  The  part  of  the  flower  bearing  the  ovules  and  which 
ripens  into  the  fruit. 

Pistillate.  Bearing  pistils  but  no  fertile  stamens.  Often  used 
synonymously  with  female. 

Placenta.     Place  of  attachment  of  ovules  in  an  ovary. 

Pollen.  Small  spores  produced  by  the  anthers  for  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  ovules. 

Pollination.  The  carrying  of  pollen  from  the  anther  to  the 
stigma. 

Polygamous.  Perfect  and  unisexual  flowers  borne  on  the  same 
plant. 

Pome.     Fruit  represented  by  the  Apple,  Thorn,  Quince,  etc. 

Propagation.     The  multiplication  of  plants. 

Pruning.  The  removing  of  branches  from  a  plant  to  improve  its 
general  appearance  or  to  check  or  encourage  growth. 

Pubescent.     Covered  with  fine  short  hairs. 

Quarter  sawing.  The  sawing  on  the  radius,  but  as  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  do  this  exactly,  the  log  is  first  quartered  and 
then  sawed  into  boards,  cutting  them  alternately  from 
each  face  of  the  quarter  of  the  log.  Sawed  in  this  way  the 
grain  of  the  wood  does  not  show  nearly  so  conspicuously 
and  varied  as  in  that  tangentially  sawed,  but  the  grain  is 
narrower,  and  the  wood  sawed  in  this  way  does  not  warp 
nearly  so  much  as  that  tangentially  sawed,  and  is  much 
more  expensive.  (Page  168.) 

Raceme.  A  simple  inflorescence  in  which  the  flowers  are  on 
pedicels,  and  the  lower  open  first,  (e.  g.  Black  Cherry, 
page  324.) 

Ranging  poles.  Straight  poles  about  eight  feet  long  used  by  sur- 
veyors to  indicate  the  direction  of  a  line  which  is  being 
measured  or  the  position  of  points  to  be  located. 

Regular.  Parts  of  each  cycle  of  the  perianth  alike,  (e.  g.  Bird 
Cherry.) 

Root.  A  part  of  the  plant  which  absorbs  nourishment  for  the 
plant,  or  serves  as  a  support.  It  may  be  underground  or 
aerial. 

Root-cutting.     See  cutting.     (Page  86.) 


GLOSSARY.  387 

Rudimentary.  Imperfectly  developed  or  in  an  early  state  of  de- 
velopment. 

Samara.     A  winged  fruit,     (e.  g.  Maple.) 

Saprophyte.  A  plant  which  lives  upon  and  obtains  its  food  from 
dead  organic  matter. 

Sapwood.  The  outer  or  latest  formed  wood  of  a  woody  plant. 
(Page  12.) 

Sawing.  The  two  methods  used  in  sawing  are  termed  tangential 
sawing  and  quarter  sawing,  q.  v. 

Scion.  The  part  inserted  in  the  stock  in  the  various  processes 
of  graftage. 

Seed.    The  body  containing  the  embryo  plant;  the  ripened  ovule. 

Seedling.  In  nursery  practice  a  young  plant  grown  from  seed 
and  not  having  been  transplanted. 

Seeding  tree.     A  tree,  sufficiently  mature,  to  produce  fruit. 

Seed  variety.     A  variety  that  comes  true  from  seed. 

Sepal.     One  of  the  divisions  of  the  calyx. 

Serrate.     Saw-toothed,     (e.  g.  leaves  of  Balm  of  Gilead.) 

Sessile.     Without  stalk. 

Sheath.  In  pines,  the  case-like  part  surrounding  the  base  of  the 
needle  cluster. 

Shrub.     A  woody  plant  with  no  main  stem  or  trunk;    a  bush. 

Silver  grain.  Bands  or  plates  of  medullary  rays  exposed  radi- 
ally on  longitudinal  section. 

Simple.     Composed  of  one  part;    not  compound. 

Sinuate.     Strongly  wavy. 

Sinus.     An  indentation. 

Solar- pit.     (Page  89.) 

Spatulate.  Shaped  like  a  spatula;  broadly  rounded  at  the  apex; 
tapering  toward  the  base. 

Species.  A  division  of  a  genus,  the  plants  of  which  seem  to  be 
derived  from  an  immediate  common  ancestor. 

Species  class.  A  group  of  trees  of  the  same  species  made  in  for- 
est survey. 

Specific  gravity.  Weight  compared  with  distilled  water  at  4 
degrees  Centigrade.  Where  used  here  with  reference  to 
wood  it  refers  to  absolutely  dry  wood  unless  otherwise 
noted. 

Spike.  A  simple  dense  raceme-like  inflorescence  with  flowers 
sessile  or  nearly  so. 

26 


388  GLOSSARY. 

Spore.     A  reproductive  body,  commonly  applied  to  those  borne 

by  plants  that  do  not  produce  seed.     Analogous  but  not 

homologous  to  a  seed. 

Stamen.     Pollen-bearing  organ  of  a  flower. 
Staminate.     Said    of    flowers    bearing    stamens,    but    no    pistils. 

Often  used  synonymously  with  male. 
Stem.     The  main    axis  or  one  of  the  main  axes  of  a  plant.     It 

may  be  underground  or  aerial.     Commonly  used  in  place 

of  petiole,  pedicel  and  peduncle. 
Sterile.     Not  fertile;    not  able  to  reproduce. 
Stigma.     The  part  of  the  pistil  upon  which  the  pollen  falls  and 

germinates. 
Stipule.     A  leaf  appendage  at  the  base  of  the  blade  or  petiole; 

not  always  present,     (e.  g.  Black  Willow.) 
Stock  plants.     Plants  used  to  propagate  from. 
Stoma.     (pi.  Stomata)     Breathing  pores  of  leaves. 
Stratification.     A  method  of  storing  seeds  with  alternate  layers  of 

some  other  material,  as  sand  or  leaves.  (Page  76.) 
Strobilus  or  Strobile.  A  cone.  (e.  g.  Pine,  Lycopodium.) 
Stumpage.  The  standing  timber. 

Style.     The  stalk,  if  present,  that  joins  the  stigma  to  the  ovary. 
Sucker.     A  shoot  from  an  underground  root  or  stem;    often  ap- 
plied to  an  adventitious  shoot  above  ground. 
Sunscald.     (Page  112.) 
Superior.     Applied  to  ovary  when  attached  on  a  level  or  above 

the  other  parts  of  the  flower,     (e.  g.  Ohio  Buckeye.) 
Surveyor  general.     The  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  measure  or  to 

direct  the  measurement  of  logs  and  lumber. 
Tangential  sawing.     The  common  way  of  cutting  logs  by  which 

the  boards  on  each  side  of  the  center  board  are  sawed  by 

a  cut  that  is  tangent  to  the  annual  rings.     This  method 

serves  to  bring  out  the  grain  of  wood  most  conspicuously. 
Tap-root.     A  central  root  running  deep  into  the  soil. 
Tensile  strength.       The  force  which  resists  breaking  or  drawing 

asunder. 
Tent-caterpillars.     Caterpillars  that  build  silky-like  tents  on  trees 

and  other  plants. 

Thorn.     A  hardened  sharp-pointed  branch. 
Tomentose.     Clothed  with  matted  woolly  hair. 
Top-worked.     Said  of  trees  that  are  grafted  or  budded  at  some 

distance  above  the  ground. 


GLOSSARY.  389 

Transit.     A  surveyor's  instrument  for  measuring  angles,  etc. 
Transpiration.     The  process  by  which  water  is  taken  up  by  the 

roots  of  plants  and  given  off  to  the  air  through  the  leaves 

and  branches. 
Tree.     A  perennial  woody  plant  with  a  single  stem  which  from 

natural    tendencies    generally    divides    into    two    or    more 

branches  at  some  distance  from  the  ground. 
Tree-crown.     That   part   of   a   tree   that   is   branched,    forming  a 

head. 
Tree-digger.     Ordinarily  a  plow-like  implement  having  a  sharp 

knife-like  blade  that  is  drawn  through  the  soil  by  a  team 

and  cuts  the  roots  off  the  trees  at  a  distance  from  the  base 

of  the  tree-trunk.     Where  large  quantities  of  trees  are  to 

be  dug  this  is  a  most  important   implement.     There  are 

various  kinds;    one  style  cuts  on  both  sides  of  the  row  at 

one  time. 

Tri.     Prefix  meaning  three. 

Triangulation.     The  method  of  survey  by  dividing  into  triangles. 
Tripod.     A  three-legged  support  for  an  instrument. 
Turgid.     Distended;     applied   to    leaves    and    other   parts    when 

filled  writh  water. 
Umbel.     An  umbrella-like   form  of  inflorescence,     (e.    g.   flower 

clusters  of  Caraway.     Parsnip.) 
Unisexual.     Bearing  either  male  or  female  organs,  not  both.     (e. 

g.  flowers  of  Willows.) 

Variety.     A   distinct   and   valuable   variation    from   the    original. 
Valve.     One  of  the  parts  of  a  dehiscent  pod. 
Valvate.     Opening  by  valves. 
Volume.     Amount  or  mass  of  a  tree  or  log. 
Water  capital.     The  entire  water  of  the  earth. 
Weed.     A  plant  out  of  place,  a  generally  troublesome  plant,  not 

of  any  appreciable  economic  value. 
Whorl.     Applied  to  leaves  when  arranged  in  a  circle  around  the 

stem. 

Wings  of  a  leaf.     The  expanded  portion;    the  blade. 
Windbreak.     A  single   row  or  belt  of  trees,   which   serves  as  a 

protection  from  wind. 

Wood.     The  hardened  tissue  of  a  stem.     A  forest. 
Working  plan.     A  pre-arrangement  of  the   method   of   growing 

and  harvesting  a  forest  crop  of  a  particular  tfact. 


INDEX. 


Orders  and  families  in  SMALL  CAPS  ;  genera  in  heavy  face  ;  synonyms 
in  italics.  Figures  in  parenthesis  indicate  illustrations. 

NOTE. — The  trees  embraced  in  the  l,ist  of  the  More  Important  Trees  of  the 
United  States  are  not  indexed  —  see  list  page  369. 


Abies,  227. 

balsamea,  (228),  227. 

concolor,  229. 
Acacia—False,  333. 

—  Threethorn,  329. 
Accretion,  139. 
Accretion  borer,  (151),  150. 
ACERACE^E,  335. 
Acer,  335. 
Acer  dasycarpum,  340. 

negundo,  (347),  348. 

pennsylvanicum,  346. 

platanoides,  (339),  338. 

platanoides  reitenbachii,  340. 

platanoides  schwedlerii,  340. 

rubrum,  (344),  343. 

saccharinum,  (341),  340. 


saccharum,  (337),  336. 

spicatum,  345. 

tartaricum,  346. 

tartaricum  ginnale,  346. 
Act  for  prevention  of  forest  fires  in 

Minnesota,  193. 
Actual  income,  187. 
JEscultts,  348. 

glabra,  (350),  351. 

hippocastanum,  349. 
Agaricus  melleus,  (113),  112. 
Alarm  about  destruction  of  forests, 

184. 

Alkali  soils,  Occurrence,  25. 
Almondleaf  Willow,  (252),  251. 
Alder—  Hoary,  280. 

—  Speckled,  280. 
Alntts  incana,  (281),  280. 
Altimeter,  1B3. 


Amelanchier,  317. 

alnifolia,  318. 

canadensis,  317. 

canadensis  abovalis,  318. 
American  Aspen,  260. 
A  merican  Elm,  299. 
American  Larch,  214. 
American  Linden,  353. 
American  Mountain  Ash,  312. 
Angle  mirror,  147. 
Angle  prism,  147. 
Annual  rings,  11,  126. 
Antiseptics,  180. 
Arborvitse,  (231),  230. 

—  Douglas  Golden,  233. 

—  Pyramidal,  233. 

—  Siberian,  232. 

Areas  of  Circles,  Table  of,  136. 
Ash— Black,  (363),  361. 

—  Green,  361. 

—  Hoop,  362. 

—  Mountain,  312. 

—  Elderleaf  Mountain,  (315),  314. 

—  Red,  360. 

—  Swamp,  362. 

—  White,  (359),  358. 
Ashleaf  Maple,  348. 
Aspect,  Effect  on  growth,  26. 
Aspen,  (261),  260. 
Assimilation,  17. 
Austrian  Pine,  (212),  211. 
Ax  and  Saw,  72. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  (263),  262. 

—  Hairy,  264. 
Balsam,  227. 
Balsam  Fir,  (228),  227. 
Bark,  12. 


INDEX. 


391 


Basal  area,  134. 
Basket  Willows,  247. 
Basswood,  (354),  353. 

—  European,  356. 
Baummesser,  149. 
Beech— Blue,  (285),  284. 

—  Water,  284. 
Beetree,  353. 
BETULACEJE,  274. 
Betula,  274. 

alba,  276. 

alba  pendula  laciniata,  277. 

lenta,  278. 

lutea,  (279),  2r8. 

nigra,  277. 

papyrifera,  (275),  274. 

BlGNONIACE^E,  364. 

BIGNONIA  FAMILY,  364. 
Birch—  Canoe,  274. 

—  Cutleaf  Weeping,  276. 

—  European  White,  276. 

—  Gray,  278. 

—  Paper,  (275),  274. 

—  Red,  277. 

—  River,  277. 

—  Sweet,  278. 

—  White,  274. 

-  Yellow,  (279),  278. 
BIRCH  FAMILY,  274. 
Bird  Cherry,  322. 
Birds,  Injuries  from,  106. 
Bitternut  Hickory,  (244),  245. 
Black  Ash,  (363),  362. 
Black  Cherry,  (325),  322. 
Black  Haw,  366. 
Black  Knot,  326. 
Black  Locust,  329,  333. 
Black  Oak,^a, 
Black  Pine,  211. 
Black  Poplar,  270. 
Black  Spruce,  (219),  218. 
Black  Walnut,  (239),  238. 
Black  Willow,  (250),  251. 
Blowing  out  of  small  seedlings,  56. 
Blue  Beech,  (211),  212. 
Blue  Spruce,  221. 
B.  M.,  144. 
Board  Measure,  144. 
Bolle  Poplar,  273. 
Borers,  105. 
Boucherie  process,  181. 


Bounty  for  tree  planting,  194. 
Boxelder,  (347),  348. 
Breed's  Weeder,  Use  of,  49. 
Broken  branches,  112. 
Browsing  of  deer,  123. 
BUCKEYE  FAMILY,  848. 
Buckthorn,  (352),  351. 

—  English,  351. 
BUCKTHORN  FAMILY,  351. 
Buds.  13. 

Buildings  on    a    Farm,   location  of, 

(57),  (58),  56. 
Bull  Pine,  (208),  207. 
Burnettizing,  182. 
Bur  Oak,  (294),  293. 
Bur  White  Oak,  293. 
Butternut,  (241),  240. 
Calipers,  148. 
Callousing,  89. 
Canoe  Birch,  274. 
Cants,  169. 

Capital  in  wood,  186. 
Capital  stock,  187. 
CAPRIFOLIACE^E,  366. 
Carolina  Poplar,  265. 
Carpentry,  165. 
Carpinus,  284. 

caroliniana,  (285),  284. 
Carya  alba,  243. 

amara,  245. 
Castanea,  286. 

dentata,  (287),  286. 
Catalpa,  364. 

bignpnioides,  366. 

speciosa,  (365),  364. 
Cattle,  Injuries  from,  106. 
Cedar— Red,  233. 

—  White,  230. 
Celtis,  306. 

occidentalis,  (307),  306. 
Certinensis  Poplar,  273. 
Charring  timber,  179. 
Chemical  pulp,  167. 
Cherry— Bird,  322. 

—  Black,  (325),  324. 

—  Choke  (327),  326. 

—  Pigeon,  322. 

—  Pin,  322. 

—  Rum,  324. 

—  Wild  Black,  324. 

—  Wild  Red,  (323),  322. 


392 


INDEX. 


Chestnut,  (287),  286. 

Chief  fire  warden,  193. 

Chinook  of  the  West,  37. 

Chloride  of  zinc,  182. 

Choke  Cherry,  (327),  326. 

Circles,  areas  of,  136. 

Clear  plantings,  51. 

Climbers,  152. 

Coal-tar,  179. 

Coatings  for  wood,  179. 

Coffeetree,  (332),  331. 

Colorado  Blue  Spruce,  221. 

Coloring  matter  of  wood,  176. 

Color  of  wood,  a  test  of  durability,  176. 

Common  I,ocust,  333. 

Common  Juniper,  235. 

Common  Golden  Willow,  255. 

Compass,  147. 

Conifers,  raising  from  seed,  80. 

Conservation,  Elements  of,  39. 

Cooperage,  166. 

Coppice,  68. 

Cork  Elm,  301. 

Cotton  batting,  123. 

Cottonwood,  (267),  265. 

—  Goldenleaf,  269. 

—  Narrowleaf,  265. 

—  Seedlings,  77. 

—  Yield,  130. 

Covering  of  tree  seeds,  66. 
Crab-Iowa,  (313),  312. 

-  Wild,  312. 

—  Western,  312. 
Crataegtts,  319. 

puncata,  (320),  319. 
Creosote,  181. 
Creosoting  process,  181. 
Crooked  trees,  Treatment  of,  99. 
Cross-cut  sawing,  168. 
Cross-sectional  area,  132. 
Cross  staff  head,  147. 
Cubic  feet  in  cord  of  firewood,  138. 
Cubic  feet,  conversion  into  B.  M.,  138. 
Cultivation,  55,  60. 
Curing  wood,  178. 

Curtis,  Production  of  a  hot  wind,  46. 
Cutleaf  Weeping  Birch,  277. 
Cutleaf  Maple,  343. 
Cuttings,  86. 

Bunch  of  Willow,  (87),  87. 

Cultivation,  88. 


Cuttings,  Form  and  size,  86. 

Planting,  87. 

In  solar  pit,  (89),  88. 

Source  of,  86. 

Time  of  planting,  88. 
Cutting  of  timber,  Time,  176. 
Damping  off  of  conifers,  81. 
Dead  oil,  181. 
Deal  wood,  209. 
Decay  in  wood,  175. 
Depth  to  cover  seeds,  82. 
Destruction  of  forests,  184. 
Diameter  accretion,  131. 
Distillation  of  wood,  167. 
Dissipation,  Elements  of,  33. 
Distance  between  trees,  50. 
Distance  of  trees  from  buildings,  etc., 

48. 

Distribution  of  seeds,  16. 
Distribution  of  water,  41. 
Dominion  Experiment  Station  in  As- 

siniboia,  37. 
Double  Spruce,  218. 
Douglas  Golden  Arborvitse,  233. 
Douglas  Fir,  225. 
Douglas  Spruce,  (226),  225. 
Drouth,  injuries  from,  111. 
Dry  rot  in  wood,  177. 
Dry  seeds,  78. 

Durability  of  fence  posts,  178. 
Durability  of  wood,  175. 
Dwarf Juneberry,  318. 
Dwarf  Juniper,  (235),  235. 
Dwarf  Mountain  Pine,  211. 

—  Pine,  211. 

Eastern  slope,  Effect  on  growth,  26. 
EL^EAGNACE^E,  356. 
Elaeagnus,  356. 

angustifolia,  (357),  356. 
Elderleaf  Mountain  Ash,  (315),  314. 
.  Elm — American,  299. 

—  Cork,  (302),  301. 

—  Moose,  303. 

—  Red,  303. 

—  Rock,  301. 

—  Slippery,  (304),  303. 

—  Water,  299. 

—  White,  (300),  299. 
ELM  FAMILY.  299. 
Elm  Tree,  Pruned,  103. 
Engelmann  Spruce,  221. 


INDEX. 


393 


English  Buckthorn,  351. 

Estimating  standing  timber,  143. 

European  Basswood,  356. 

European  Inarch,  (215),  216. 

European  Linden,  356. 

European  Mountain  Ash,  316. 

European  White  Birch,  276. 

European  systems  of  forest  manage- 
ment, 188. 

Evaporation  from  soil,  34. 

Evaporation  in  winter,  19. 

Evergreen  seed  bed,  81. 

Evergreens,  Sowing  seed,  80. 

Evergreens,  Transplanting,  94. 

FAGACE.E,  286. 

False  Acacia,  333. 

Farm  machinery,  166. 

Farm  woodlot,  72. 

Fence  Posts.  Table  of  Durability  of, 
178. 

Fetid  Buckeye,  351. 

Fighting  Fires,  120. 

Files,  152. 

Fir— Balsam,  (228),  227. 

—  Douglas,  22 :. 

—  Red,  225. 

—  Silver,  229. 

—  White,  229. 

Firebreak  on  sand  dune,  119. 
Firebreaks,  118. 
Fire-fall,  116. 

Fire  law  in  Minnesota,  193. 
Fireproof  wood,  182. 
Fires  in  forests,  113. 

Causes,  117. 

Crown,  114. 

Prevention,  117. 

Spring,  116. 

Summer  and  autumn,  116. 

Surface,  114,  115,  120. 

Underground,  114,  120. 
Fire  wardens,  193. 
Flowers,  15. 

Foehn  of  .Switzerland,  37. 
Fogs  and  clouds,  42. 
Food  formation,  17. 
Forest,  The,  21. 
Forest  and  pasture,  122. 
Forest  economics,  184. 
Forest  fires,  113. 
Forest  fires,  Notable,  121. 


Forest  floor,  24,  115. 

Forest  industries  of  Minnesota,  185. 

Forest  influences,  28. 

on  disposal  of  water  supplies,  33. 

on  fogs  and  clouds,  42. 

on  precipitation,  32. 

on  water  supplies,  29. 

on  wind  and  hail  storms,  42. 
Forest  mensuration,  132. 
Forest  planting,  66. 
Forest  problems  in  Minnesota,  153. 
Forest  protection,  104. 
Forest-pulled  trees,  92. 
Forest  regeneration  and  treatment, 

60. 
Forest    reservations     and     national 

parks,  101. 

Forest  treatment,  60. 
Forest  trees  of  the  United  States,  269. 
Forestry  requires  capital,  186. 
Forest,  Virgin,  60. 
Forest  weed,  70. 

Forests,  Wind-breaking  power  of,  35. 
Fraxinus,  358. 

americana,  (359),  358. 

lanceolata,  361. 

nigra,  (363),  362. 

pennsylvanica,  360. 

pubescens,  360. 

sambucifolia,  362. 

viridis,  361. 

Freezing  and  thawing,  107. 
Frost  cracks,  109. 
Frost  cracks  in  Sugar  Maple,  110. 
Frost.  Injuries  from,  108. 
Frost-hardy  trees,  108- 
Frost-tender  trees,  108. 
Fruit,  16. 
Fuel  woods  of  Minnesota,  170 

value  of  woods,  170. 

values,  table  of,  172. 
Fungi  in  wood,  175. 
Fungus,  Shelf,  (175),  175. 
Fungus  diseases,  112,  175. 
Gathering  seeds,  75. 
Germination  of  seeds,  75. 
Girdling  by  mice,  105. 
Glauber  salts,  167. 
Gleditsia,  328. 

triacanthos,  (330),  329. 
Glossary,  378. 


394 


INDEX. 


Glossy  leaf  Willow,  (258),  257. 
Golden  Arborvittz,  164. 
Goldenleaf  Cottonwood,  269. 
Golden  Willow— Common,  255. 

—  Russian,  256. 
Gophers,  113. 

Government  supervision  of  forests  in 

Germany,  190. 
Grades  of  nursery  stock,  98. 
Graftage,  90. 
Gray  Birch,  278. 
Gray  Pine,  205. 
Green  Ash,  361. 

Green  Ash  seedlings,  Bunch  of,  92. 
Grindstone,  152. 
Group  method,  64. 
Grove,  47. 

Growing  stock  of  a  forest,  137. 
Growth  of  trees  an  index  to  value  of 

land,  23. 

Growth  on  muskegs,  23. 
Gymnocladus,  331. 

canadensis,  331. 

dioicus,  (332),  331. 
Hackberry,  (307),  306. 
Hackmatack,  214. 

Hail  storms,  Forest  influences  on,  42. 
Hairy  Balm  of  Gilead,  264. 
Hand  ax,  152. 
Hard  Maple,  336. 
Hardy  Catalpa,  364. 
Haw,  Dotted,  (320),  319. 
Heart  wood,  12. 

Coloration,  12. 
Heaving  out  by  frost,  107. 
Heavy-wooded  Pine,  207. 
Heeling-in,  97. 
Height  accretion,  133. 
Height  classes,  137. 
Heights    of    one-year-old    seedlings, 

Table  of,  83. 
Hemlock,  224. 
Hicoria,  242. 

minima,  (244),  245. 

ovata,  243. 
Hickory— Bitternut,  (244),  245. 

—  Shagbark,  243. 

—  Shellbark,  243. 

—  Swamp,  245. 
Hinckley  fire,  114,  122. 

HlPPOCASTANACE^E,  348. 


Honey  I^ocust,  (330),  329. 
HONEYSUCKLE  FAMILY,  366. 
Hoop  Ash,  362. 
Hop  Hornbeam,  282. 
Hornbeam,  (283).  282. 
Hornbeam,  284. 
Horse  Chestnut,  349. 
Hot  winds,  45. 
Hypsometer,  (149-150),  148. 
Impregnation  of  Beech  wood,  180. 
Improvement  cuttings,  71. 
Improvement  of  land  in  forests,  42. 
Improving  the  woodlot,  72. 
Inarching,  90. 
Income  from  forests,  187. 
Income  from  game  preserves,  189. 
Increasing  value  of  forests,  187. 
Influence  of  forests,  28. 
Injury  from  late  spring  frosts,  108. 
Injuries  to  trees,  104. 
Insects,  Injuries  from,  104. 
Instruments  used  in  forest  mensura- 
tion, 147-152. 

Interception  of  rainfall,  33. 
Interception  of  water  in  forests,  33. 
Intolerant,  22. 
Investments  in  timber,  128. 
Investments,  Profits  from,  128. 
Iowa  Crab,  (313),  312. 
Iron  railroad  ties,  180. 
Ironwood,  282. 

Jack  Pine,  (206),  205. 
Jack  Pine,  Stand  of,  137. 
Jacob  staff,  149. 
Joinery,  166. 

JUGLANDACE^E,   237. 

Juglans,  237. 

cinerea,  (241),  240. 

nigra,  (239),  238. 
Jnneberry,  317. 

—  Dwarf,  318. 
Juniper —  Common,  235. 

—  Dwarf,  (235),  235. 

—  Red,  166. 

—  Trailing,  235 
Jtmiperus,  233. 

com  munis,  (235),  235. 
virginiana,  (234),  233. 

Kentucky  Coffeetree,  331. 
Kerf,  146. 


INDEX. 


395 


King's  experiments  with  windbreaks, 

36,  37. 
Knisely's  experiments  on  evaporation 

from  trees  in  winter,  19. 
Kyanizing  process,  181. 
Land  broken  by  dragging  logs,  63. 
Inarch — American,  214. 

—  European,  (215),  216. 
Largetooth  Aspen,  262. 
I,arix,  213. 

americana,  214. 

europea,  215. 

occidental!?,  372. 

laricina,  214. 
Late  spring  frosts,  108. 
Laurelleaf  Willow,  257. 
Law,  Fire,  in  Minnesota,  193. 
payers,  89. 
Leather  board,  167. 
Leaves,  14. 
Leaves  on  conifers,  Time  they  remain 

on  trees,  15. 
LEGUMINOS.E,  328. 
Level,  147. 
Lice,  105. 

Life  history  of  mature  tree,  126. 
Light  demanding  trees,  21. 
Limber  Pine,  202. 
Lime  Whitewash,  179. 
Linden — American,  353. 

—  European,  336. 
LINDEN  FAMILY,  353. 
Live  fence  posts,  160. 
Log  rule,  152. 
Location  of  buildings,  56. 
Locust,  (334),  333. 

—  Black,  333. 

—  Common,  833. 

-  Honey,  (330),  329. 

—  Yellow,  333. 
Lombardy  Poplar,  270. 

Lumber  industry  in  Minnesota,  185. 
Maple— Ashleaf,  348. 

—  Cutleaf,  343. 

—  Hard,  336. 

—  Mountain,  345. 

—  Norway  (339),  338. 

—  Red,  (344),  343. 

—  Reitenbach,  340. 

—  Rock,  336. 

—  Scarlet,  343. 


Maple— Schwedler,  340. 

—  Silver,  (341),  340. 

-  -  Silverleaf,  340. 

-  Soft,  340. 

—  Striped,  346. 

—  Sugar,  (337),  336. 

—  Swamp,  343. 

—  Tartarian,  346. 

—  White,  340. 

—  Wier's  Cutleaf,  343. 
MAPLE  FAMILY,  335. 
Marking  pins,  147. 
Mass  accretion,  139,  140. 
Measurement  of  growing  stock,  137. 
Measurement  of  logs  and  lumber,  144. 
Measurement  of  single  trees,  132. 
Mechanical  condition  of  land  in  for- 
ests, 23. 

Mechanical  pulp,  167. 
Men  employed  in  lumbering  indus- 
tries, 185. 

Methods  of  sawing,  168. 
Mice,  105. 

Mineral  substances,  18. 
Mining,  166. 

Minnesota  state  forest  reserves,  192. 
Minnesota  state  forestry  board,  193. 
Miramichi  fire,  121. 
Mirror  hypsometer,  (150),  148. 
Mixed  plantings,  51. 
Mixed  plantings,  List  of  trees  for,  53. 
Moose  Elm,  303. 
Moosewood,  346. 

MORACEJE,    308. 

Mortis,  308. 

alba  tartarica,  (310),  309. 

rubra,  308. 
Mossy- Cup  Oak,  293. 
Mound  planting,  68. 
Mountain  Ash,  312. 

—  American,  812. 

—  Elderleaf,  (315),  314. 

—  European,  316. 

—  Oakleaf ,  317. 

—  Weeping,  317. 
Mountain  Maple,  345. 
Mountain  Spruce,  221. 
Mulberry— Red,  308. 

—  Russian,  (310),  309. 

—  Tea's  Weeping,  311. 
MULBERRY  FAMILY,  308. 


396 


INDEX. 


Mulching  trees,  101. 
Muskegs,  Growth  on,  23. 
Nannyberry,  366. 
Napoleon  Willow,  259. 
Narrowleaf  Cotton  wood,  265. 
National  parks,  191. 
Negundo  aceroides,  348. 
Nettletree,  306. 
Normal  growing  stock,  187. 
Normal  income,  187. 
Northern  Scrub-Pine,  205. 
Northern  slope,  effect  on  growth,  26. 
Norway  Maple,  (339),  338. 
Norway  Pine,  202. 

Norway    Pine     crowded     and    open- 
grown,  129. 

Norway  Spruce,  (223),  222. 
Young  growth  in  Germany,  (190). 
Notable  forest  fires,  121. 

Miramichi,  121. 

Peshtigo,  121. 

Michigan,  121. 

Hinckley,  122. 
Nursery  practice,  91. 
Nursery,  91. 

Soil  and  cultivation,  91. 

Work  and  practice,  91. 
Nursery  stock,  Grades  of,  91. 
Oak-Black,  289,  297. 

—  Bur  (294;,  293. 

—  Bur,  White,  293. 

—  Mossy-Cup,  293. 

—  Red,  (296),  295. 

—  Scarlet,  (298),  297. 

—  White,  (290),  289. 

—  Swamp,  (292),  291. 
OAK  FAMILY,  286. 
Oakleaf  Mountain  Ash,  317. 
Odors  of  decaying  wood,  175. 
Ohio  Buckeye,  (350),  351. 

Oil  paints,  179. 
OLEACE^C,  358. 
OLEASTER  FAMILY,  356, 
OLIVE  FAMILY,  358. 
Osier  Willows,  247. 
Ostrya,  282. 

virginiana,  (283),  282. 
Paper  Birch,  (275),  274. 
Paper  pulp,  167. 
Paraboloid,  132. 
Pasturing  cattle  in  woodlands,  106. 


PEA  FAMILY,  328. 
Peshtigo  fire,  121. 
Picea,  216. 

alba,  216. 

canadensis  (217),  216. 

engelmanni,  221. 

excelsa,  (223),  222. 

young  growth  in  Germany,  (190). 

mariana,  (219),  218. 

nigra,  218. 

parryana,  221. 

pungens,  221. 
Peachleaf  Willow,  251. 
Pigeon  Cherry,  322. 
Pin  Cherry,  322. 

PlNACE.55,  199. 

Pine,  199. 

—  Austrian,  (212),  211. 

—  Black,  211. 

-  Bull,  207. 

—  Dwarf,  211. 

—  Dwarf  Mountain,  211. 

-  Gray,  205. 

—  Heavy- Wooded,  WX. 
-Jack,  (206),  205. 

—  lumber,  202. 

—  Northern  Scrub,  205. 

-  Norway,  202. 

—  Red,  (203),  202. 

—  Rock,  (208),  207. 

—  Scotch,  (210),  209. 

—  Western  Yellow,  207. 

—  Western  While,  202. 

—  Weymouth,  199. 

—  White,  (200),  199. 

Pine    cuttings    after    being    burned 

over,  67. 

PINE  FAMILY,  199. 
Pinus,  199. 

banksiana,  205. 

divaricata,  (206),  205. 

flexilis,  202. 

laricio  austriaca,  (212),  211. 

montana  pumila,  (213),  211. 

mughus,  211. 

ponderosa  scopulorum,  (208),  207. 

resinosa,  (203),  202. 

strobus,  (200),  199. 

sylvestris,  (210),  209. 
Pit,  Storing  seeds  in,  76. 
Plans  for  home  grounds,  56. 


INDEX. 


397 


Planting,  Methods  of,  54. 

Planting  seedlings.  Successive   steps 

in,  96. 

Planting  to  renew  timber  growth,  66. 
Plowrightia  morbosa,  326. 
Plum,  Wild,  321. 
Pocket  Gopher,  106. 
Pocket  I,ens,  150. 
Pollarding,  68. 
Poplar— Aspen,  (261),  260. 

—  Balm  of  Gilead,  (263),  262. 

—  Black,  270. 
-  Bolle,  273. 

—  Certinensis,  273. 

—  I,argetooth  Aspen,  262. 

—  L,ombardy,  270. 

—  Silverleaf,  271. 

—  Snowy,  271. 

—  White,  (272),  270. 
Poplar,  260. 

Popple,  260. 
Populus,  259. 

alba,  (272),  270. 

alba  bolleana,  273. 

alba  canescens,  273. 

alba  nivea,  271. 

angustifolia,  265. 

argentea,  271. 

balsamifera,  (263),  262. 

balsamifera  candicans,  264. 

balsamifera  intermedia,  264. 

balsamifera  latitolia,  264. 

balsamifera  viminalis,  264. 

certinensis^  273. 

crispa,  264. 

deltoides,  (267),  265. 

deltoides  aurea,  269. 

dudleyi,  264. 

grandidenta,  262. 

laurifolia,  273. 

laurifolia,  264. 

lindleyana,  264. 

nigra,  270. 

nigra  italica,  270. 

nolesti,  265. 

pyramidalis  suaveolens,  264. 

salici folia,  264. 

siberica  pyramidalis,  264. 

tremuloides,  (261),  260. 

van  gertii,  269. 

wobsky,  265. 


Possibilities    of   yield  of   our    forest 

area, 185. 

Prairie  planting,  47. 
Prairies,  Why  treeless,  43. 
Pressler's  tables  of  relative  diameters, 

141. 

Price  of  fuel,  184. 
Printing  paper,  167. 
Profits  from  timber,  128. 
Propagation,  73. 

by  division,  73. 

Protection  from  windbreaks,  41. 
Protection  to  buildings,  48. 
Protection  to  crops  by  windbreaks,  48. 
Pruning,  97. 

Directions  for,  98. 

of  forest  trees,  69. 

Purpose  of,  97. 

Time   for,  98. 
Prtmus,  321. 

americana,  321. 

demissa,  828. 

pennsylvanica,  (323),  322. 

nigra,  321. 

serotina  (325),  324. 

virginiana,  (327),  326. 
Pseudotsttga,  225. 

douglasii,  225. 

taxifolia,  (226),  225. 
Pyramidal  Arborvitse,  232. 
Pyrus,  311. 

americana,  312. 

aucuparia,  316. 

aucuparia  pendula,  317. 

coronaria,  312. 

hybrida,  317. 

ioensis,  (313),  312. 

sambucifolia,  (315),  314. 
Quaking  Aspen,  260. 
Quarter-sawing,  168. 
Quercus,  288. 

alba, (290),  289. 

coccinea,  (298),  297. 

macrocarpa,  (294),  293. 

platanoides,  (292),  291. 

rubra,  (296),  295. 

suber,  289. 

velutina,  297. 

Rabbits,  Injuries  from,  105. 
Rainfall,  height  of  water  table  in  the 
land,  44. 


398 


INDEX. 


Raising  coniferous  trees,  81. 

Rate  of  growth,  125,  139,  150. 

Rate  of  increase  in  timber,  125. 

Red  Ash,  360. 

Red  Birch,  277. 

Red  Cedar,  233. 

Red  Cherry,  322. 

Red  Elm,  303. 

Red  Fir,  225. 

Red  Juniper,  (->34),  233. 

Red  Maple,  (344),  343. 

Red  Mulberry,  308; 

Red  Oak,  (296),  295. 

Red  Pine,  (203),  202. 

Regeneration,  62. 
by  artificial  seeding,  65. 
by  natural  seeding,  62,  66. 
by  planting  cuttings,  68. 
by  planting  seedlings,  66. 
by  sprouts  and  suckers,  68. 

Reitenbach  Maple,  340. 

Relation  between  trees  and  soils,  23. 

Reseeding,  Natural,  66. 

Rest  period  of  plants,  19. 
RHAMNACE.E,  351. 
Rhamnus,  351. 

catharticus,  (352),  351. 
Ripening  of  wood,  19. 
River  Birch,  277. 
Robinia,  333. 

Wudacacia,  (334),  333. 
Rock  Elm,  301. 
Rock  Maple,  338. 
Rock  Pine,  207. 
Root  growth,  Extent  of.  13. 
Root  formation,  (Figure  2),  13. 
Roots,  12. 

Roots  on  a  forest  grown  Elm,  93. 
ROSACES,  311. 
ROSE  FAMILY,  311. 
Rotation,  69. 
Rot  in  wood,  175. 
Royal  Willow,  256. 
Rum  Cherry,  324. 
Run-off  of  Water,  41. 
Russell's  experiment,  Effect  of  wind 

on  evaporation,  34. 
Russian— Mulberry,  (310),  309. 

—  Olive,  (357),  356. 
SALICACE/E,  246. 


Salix,  246. 
acutifolia,  257. 
alba,  (254),  253. 
alba  britzensis,  256. 
alba  regalis,  256. 
alba  vittellina,  (255),  256. 
amygdaloides,  (252),  251. 
laurifolia,  257. 
lucida,  (258),  257. 
napoleonis,  259. 
nigra,  (250),  251. 
pentandra,  257. 
purpurea,  249. 
pendula,  259. 
regalis,  257. 
Sample  acre,  137. 
Sample  tree,  140. 
Sand  dunes,  123. 
Sapwood,  12. 
Savin,  233. 
Saw,  72. 

Sawing,  Methods  of,  168. 
Sawflies,  Injuries  from,  104. 
Scaling,  144. 
Scarlet— Maple,  343. 

—  Oak,  (298),  297. 
Schwedler  Maple,  340. 
Scotch  Fir,  207. 
Scotch  Pine,  207. 
Scratcher,  152. 
Scribner's  Rule,  145. 
Scrub  Pine,  Northern,  205. 
Second  growth,  20. 
Seed,  The,  16. 

Evergreen,  bed,  81. 
Seeding  of  timber  lands,  66. 
Seeding  trees,  66. 
Seedlings,  92. 
Green  Ash,  92. 
variations,  75. 
Height  of  one-year-old,  83. 
Seeds,  73. 
Amount  to  use,  82. 
Classified,  77. 
Coniferous  tree,  77,  79. 
Covering,  82. 
Distribution  of,  16. 
Dry,  78. 

Fleshy  covered,  78. 
Gathering,  75. 
Germination  of,  75. 


INDEX. 


399 


Seeds,  Leguminous  tree,  79,  86. 

Nut,  79,  86. 

Ripening  in  August,  78. 

Ripening  in  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer, 77. 

Sources  of,  73. 

Sowing,  82. 

Stratification  of,  76. 

Variations  from,  75. 
Seed  variations,  75. 
Seed  years,  63. 
Selection  method,  63. 
Serviceberry,  317. 
Servicetree— I/mgleaf,  318. 

—  Western,  318. 
Servicetree,  317. 
Shade-enduring  trees,  22. 
Shagbark  Hickory,  243. 
Shapes  of  trees,  16. 
Sheepberry,  (367),  366. 
Shellbark  Hickory,  243. 
Shelterbelt,  47. 
Shelterbelts,  Plans  of.  57. 
Shining  Willow,  257. 
Shipbuilding,  166. 
Siberian  Arborvitte,  232. 
Silver  Fir,  229. 
Silver  Grain,  168. 
Silverleaf  Maple,  340. 
Silver  Maple,  (341),  340. 
Silverleaf  Poplar,  271. 
Silver  Poplar,  273. 
Silver  Spruce,  221. 
Size  of  trees,  54. 

Sleet  storms,  Injuries  from,  108. 
Sleet  storm,  Trees  after,  109. 
Slippery  Elm,  (304),  303. 
Slope,  Effect  on  growth,  26. 
Snow  crust,  Injuries  from,  110. 
Snowy  Poplar,  271. 
Soft  Maple.  340. 
Soft  Maple,  pruned  and    unpruned, 

102. 

Soil  conditions,  22. 
Soil,  Improvement  of,  in  woodlands, 

18. 

Soils,  Alkali,  25. 
Soils,  Washing  of,  24. 
Solar  pit,  89. 
Sources  of  seeds,  73. 
Southern  slope,  effect  on  growth,  26. 


Sowing  seed,  82. 
Specific  gravities,  Table  of,  170. 
Spring  frosts,  Injuries  from,  108. 
Spring  growth  of  wood,  18. 
Spruce— Black,  (219),  218. 

—  Blue,  221. 

—  Colorado  Blue,  221. 

—  Double,  218. 

—  Douglas,  (226),  225. 

—  Engelmann,  221. 

—  Norway,  (223),  222. 

—  Silver,  221. 

—  White,  (217),  216. 

—  White,  221. 

State  bounty  for  tree  planting,  194. 

Steel  chain,  147. 

Steel  tape,  147. 

Storing  seeds,  78. 

Straightening  streams  with  willows, 

162. 

Stratification,  76. 
Street  trees,  92. 

Distance  apart,  100. 

Kinds  to  plant,  100. 

Mulching,  101. 

Planting,  101. 

Protection,  103. 

Pruning,  102. 

Setting,  101. 

Success  with,  100. 

Watering,  102. 
Strip  method,  63. 
Subsoil,  24. 

Succession  of  tree  growth,  60. 
Sugarberry,  306. 
Sulphite  process,  180. 
Sunscald,  112. 

Small     dead     twigs    a    protection 

against,  70. 
Sunscalded  Soft  Maple  and  Basswood, 

(111),  111. 
Surveyor  general  of  logs  and  lumber, 

144. 

Suscutanberry,  318. 
Swamp  Ash,  362. 
Swamp  Hickory,  245. 
Swamp  Maple,  343. 
Sweet  Birch,  278. 
Tables- 
Areas  of  circles,  136. 

Diameter  growth,  143. 


400 


INDEX. 


Tables- 
Durability  of  fence  posts,  175. 

Height  growth,  83. 

Height  of  one-year-old  seedlings,  83. 

length  of  time  leaves  of  conifers 
are  persistent,  15. 

Percentage  of  the  logs,  146. 

Pressler's  relative  diameters,  141. 

Scribner's  Rule,  145. 

Specific  gravities  and  fuel  values, 

170. 

Transpiration,  17. 
Tacamahac,  262. 
Tallyboard,  147. 
Tallyman,  147. 
Tamarack,  214. 
Tangential  sawing,  168. 
Tartarian  Maple,  346. 
Taxes  on  timber  lands,  189. 
Tendency  to  perpetuate  qualities,  74. 
Tensile  strength  of  wood  compared 

with  iron,  164. 
Tent  caterpillars,  104. 
Thinning,  55,  70. 
Threethorn  Acacia,  329. 
Through  and  through  sawing,  168. 
Thuja,  230. 

occidentalis,  (231),  230. 

occidentalis  aurea,  233. 

occidentalis  fastigiata,  232. 

occidentalis pyramidalis,  232. 

occidentalis  wareana,  232. 

occidentalis  sibirica,  232. 
Tilia,  353. 

americana,  (354),  353. 

platyphyllos,  356. 

vulgaris,  356. 
Tiliaceae,  353. 
Timber  famine,  Possibility  of  a,  in 

Minnesota,  184. 

Timber  lands,  Management  of,  186. 
Timber  lands,  Taxes  on,  189. 
Toadstool  root  fungus,  112. 
Tolerant,  22. 
Trailing  Juniper,  235. 
Transit,  147. 
Transpiration,  17,  38. 
Transplanting,  92. 

evergreens,  94. 

Time  of,  94. 
Transplants,  92. 


Treatment  of  crooked  trees,  99. 
Tree,  The,  11. 

Tree  claim,  A  good,  (Figure  4),  52. 
Tree  growth,  17. 
Trees  grown  from  seeds,  73. 
Tree  growth  affected  by  light  condi 
tions,  21. 

Influences  of  a,  28. 
Tree  planting,  47. 
Tree  planting  on  prairies,  47. 
Trees  for  mixed  plantings,  lyist  of,  53. 
Trees  protect  one  another,  22. 

Shape  of,  16. 
Triangulation,  132. 
Tsuga,  224. 

canadensis,  224. 
ULMACE.E,  299. 
TJlmus,  299. 

americana,  (300),  299. 

fulva,  303. 

pubescens,  (304),  303. 

racemosa,  (302),  301. 
Undergrowth  in  forests,  24. 
Unproductive  forest  land,  188. 
Uses  of  wood,  164. 

Value  of  forest  industries  of  Minne- 
sota, 185. 

Variations  from  seeds,  75. 
Viburnum,  366. 

lentago,  (367),  366. 
Virgin  forest,  (Figure  7),  61. 
Volume  of  standing  tree,  132. 
Volume  of  standing  timber,  137. 
Volume  of  felled  tree,  134. 
Walnut,  Black,  (239),  238. 
WALNUT  FAMILY,  237. 
Washing  of  soils,  24. 
Waste  in  forests,  71. 
Water,  Amount  transpired,  38. 
Water  Beech,  284. 
Water  capital,  Circulating,  30. 
Water  capital,  Fixed,  30. 
Water  discharged  by  Rhone,  30. 
Water,  Distribution  of,  31. 
Water  Elm,  299. 
Water     lost     by     trees     in     winter, 

Amount,  19. 
Water  supplies,  Forest  influences  on, 

29. 

Water  supply  in  soils,  22. 
Water  table  in  land,  Height  of,  44. 


INDEX. 


401 


Weeping  Birch,  Cutleaf,  277. 

Weeping  Mountain  Ash,  317. 

Western  Catalpa,  364. 

Western  Crab,  312. 

Western  Larch,  372. 

Western  slope,  Effect  on  growth,  27. 

Western  White  Pine,  202. 

Western  Yellow  Pine,  207. 

Weymouth  Pine,  199. 

Whetstone,  152. 

White  Ash,  (359),  358. 

White  Birch,  274. 

White  Cedar,  230. 

White  Elm,  (SCO),  299. 

White  Fir,  229. 

White  Maple,  340. 

White  Oak,  (290),  289. 

White  Pine,  (200),  199. 

Crowded    and    then    open    grown, 
(127).  127. 

Largest  cut  in  Minnesota,  125. 

Largest  yield  in  Minnesota,  125. 

Open  grown,  (128),  127. 

White  Western,  202. 
White  Poplar,  (272),  271. 
White  Spruce,  (217;,  216. 
White  Spruce,  221. 
Whitewash,  179. 
White  Willow,  (254),  253. 
White  Wood,  353. 
Why  prairies  are  treeless,  43. 
Wier's  Cutleaf  Maple,  343. 
Wild  Black  Cherry,  324. 
Wild  Crab,  312. 
Wild  Plum,  321. 
Wild  Red  Cherry,  (323),  322. 
Willow— Almondlea'f,  (252),  251. 

—  Black,  (250),  251. 

—  Common  Golden,  255. 

—  Glossyleaf,  257. 

—  Laurelleaf,  257. 

—  Napoleon,  259. 

—  New  American.  Weeping,  259. 

—  Osier,  247. 


Willow— Peachleaf,  251. 

—  Royal,  256. 

—  Russian  Golden,  256. 

—  Shining,  257. 

—  White,  (254),  253. 

—  Wisconsin  Weeping,  (251),  249. 
WILLOW  FAMILY,  246. 

Willow  for  fuel,  130. 
Willow,  Rate  of  increase,  130. 
Windbreaking  power  of  forests,  35. 
Windbreaks  of  White  Willow,  50. 
Windbreak,  White  Willow,    Injured 

by  saw-fly,  104. 
Windbreaks,  47. 

Height  of,  49. 

Location  of,  48. 

Protection  to  crops,  48. 

Trees  for,  49. 
Wind  injuries,  110. 
Winds,  Hot,  37-45. 

Windstorms,  Forest  influences  on,  42. 
Wintering  acorns  and  other  nuts,  76. 
Winter  injuries,  107. 
Wisconsin  Weeping  Willow,  249. 
Wood  and  its  uses,  164. 
Wood,  Durability  of,  175. 
Woodenware,  166. 
Woodlot,  72. 
Wood  pulp  and  distillation  products, 

167. 

Wood  structure,  168. 
Wood  working  industries  of  Minne- 
sota, 185. 

Working  plan,  143. 
Woody  stem  cross  section,  11. 

Yearly  round  of  life  in  a  tree,  18. 
Yellow  Birch,  (279),  278. 
Yellow  Cotton-wood,  265. 

—  Locust,  333. 

—  Pine,  Western,  202. 
Young  foliage  eaten  by  stock,  106. 
Young  growth  injured  in  logging,  69. 
Zinc-tannin  process,  182. 


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